The young teacher who wants to grow in his work realizes that he must feed his mind upon something outside of and beyond the mere daily grind, important as that is, by which he must prepare himself for his daily work. He welcomes topics which do not have any direct bearing upon his daily work, which may not be practical in the narrow sense of being immediately and directly usable, but which do give him something outside of his schoolroom and beyond himself to think about and reflect upon. The plan of conducting the Practical Teacher' is a very simple one. It consists of an attempt to teach and in some degree supervise the teaching of those who may need my help in their work. I have a very strong desire to assist teachers in their struggles to do better work in the schoolroom, and have accepted the editorship of the Practical Teacher that its columns may be made a means of helping those teachers who are beyond the immediate limits of my classes and personal direction. (F. W. Parker.) The Western Teacher' discusses schoolroom method, practical aids, and usable materials for progressive teachers. The School Bulletin sets forth its purposes as follows: To give news especially of the institutes of the State; to publish extended sketches of New York teachers and schools, and to discuss in brief articles only current educational measures. The purpose is to publish a State school paper of practical value to every teacher-methods, device, schoolroom aids: Our constant aim will be to meet the absolute needs of the schoolroom. The foregoing are representative. Their main content may be summarized as follows: The better class of teachers holds itself aloof from teachers' periodicals; many of the rest want amusement, jokes, scrappy information, or literary pedagogy of the county institute type. Hence many journals are crude, shallow, and lacking in dignity. The most commonly alleged demand from teachers, however, seems to come from ill-qualified persons who persistently ask for something "practical "-material directly usable in the schoolroom. Teachers apparently wish to read a plan of procedure to-day which may be practiced to-morrow and forgotten the next day, without improving themselves. Several of the quotations protest against ready-made devices and prescriptions for rule of thumb and mechanical methods. It is noted, however, that much which appears trivial to an experienced teacher may have had value at an earlier stage in his career; what is quite obvious and used as a matter of fact by strong, resourceful, or ingenious teachers has to be suggested, even given in ready-made form to a large class of teachers who are neither resourceful nor ingenious. And the last citations recognize method and device as a large element of their aim. A study of circulation statistics in a later chapter shows that the journals which actually made this their aim were the ones which met the most general demand. Between the ideal of Dr. Barnard, "to embrace only articles of permanent value and interest,” and the clever paper, with its hints, plays, songs, exercises to cut and paste; and, on the other hand, the schoolmen's type of journal, with its notes, personals, "puffs," and editorial advertising, there is a wide gulf. The former type, best represented by Barnard's American Journal of Education, realized its function most fully in becoming, as projected, a standard encyclopedia of education. It may be consulted in any large library, and is accepted as good authority at home and abroad. It is read only by somewhat scholarly persons now, as was the case while being published. For actual average teachers with only moderate enthusiasm for things intellectual, it was 1 Practical Teacher, Chicago, 1884, VIII, 13. Sch. Bulletin, Syracuse, 1874, I, 4. too scholarly, serious, and impersonal. A careful student of education1 has alleged that school journals at the close of the century were less powerful than 50 years earlier, since they could no longer influence legislation. With the statement there can be no objection. Any inferences drawn from it should take into consideration the fact that the earlier journals were devised for and rea:1 by those who made laws or at least voted for lawmakers, while the most general circulation of school journals at the close of the century was among those who did neither. All might be interested in the construction of a State school system; only professional teachers could be expected to read naturestudy lessons or busy-work. The following is the estimate of a competent student of education concerning school journals of the time (1895):' After long examination of the several periodicals, we have some time since concluded, and now invariably advise teachers, that for most purposes no educational journal is half so valuable as the School Journal, edited by Our reasons for this opinion are, that it is conducted in an earnest, helpful spirit; that it makes no concessions to the educa tional demagogues and mountebanks; that it continually sets the mastery of principles above the application of mere devices; and that it never for a moment loses sight of the philosophical and psychological foundations on which all sound educational theory and practice must rest. Its ideals are of the highest and its methods beyond criticism. With the above high indorsement, which seems to the writer not unreasonable, note the character of the periodical under consideration. The volume of 1895–96, in its less than 600 pages, exclusive of advertising, contains nearly 200 articles, in addition to book notices, poetry, a few jokes, news, and editorial notes, and a long continued story. A fourth of its space is occupied with schoolroom method and management. It is of interest only to teachers, unless the story should prove of interest to older children. Compared with the works of the early period, it would appear to the general reader scrappy and of limited interest. But both the estimate quoted and its circulation indicate that it was performing its mission. The function of a general school periodical had changed. In this chapter, chiefly by means of the quotations cited, it has been shown that the earlier school journals had widely inclusive aims, the most constant and universal of which were agitation and promotion of wise educational measures by influence upon leaders rather than direct aid of actual teachers through method and device; this aim and the older type of journal, in the presence of demand for "practical" material for teachers, occasioned after 1860 much discussion as to what a school journal was or should attempt. As a class school journals met these demands and questions by the increase of "practical helps" and "school news" material, shown later in the study of content; and it will also be shown that another class of periodicals developed whose soie appeal was to the classroom teacher. The only possible solution of the dual problem was increase of specialization. 1 Boone: Educ. in the U. S., 152. Ed. Rev., New York, 1895, IX, 523, Chapter III. SCHOOL JOURNALS SPECIALIZED TO MEET LOCAL NEEDS. Progressive specialization as a general movement is easily marked in the evolution of American educational periodicals. At first, apart from unconscious variations due to editorial bent, education itself was considered a sufficiently narrow field. Later, divers interests claimed attention, which resulted in great specialization of content, discussed in a subsequent chapter; identification with the interests of territorial divisions-or, rather, administrative units-will be the principal subject of this chapter. The first journals, while somewhat local in contributors, content, and circulation, were not specifically addressed to the needs of any locality. But in the development of State school systems it was inevitable that State school journals should come into being, in some respects similar to, though not modeled after, the official and local German publications. As these were for many years practically the only educational periodicals published, and still remain important, an account of certain phases of their development will be given. Brief notice will also be taken of county educational papers, a further specialization to meet local needs. The two agencies most influential in establishing State school journals were State superintendents or commissioners of schools and State teachers' associations. Very often the first local attempt at publication of such periodicals came through one of these means; in other cases there were private pioneer efforts, more or less unsuccessful, which soon gave way to one of the official or semiofficial agencies, with greater responsibility and better resources for support and cooperation. The first of the Journals established and edited by State superintendents of schools were the Ohio Common School Director, conducted by Samuel Lewis and published by action of the State Legislature of Ohio, and the Michigan Journal of Education,' likewise circulated by the State legislature and conducted by Supt. J. D. Pierce, "Father of the Michigan public-school system.” Both of these were issued beginning with March, 1838. In August of the same year Henry Barnard began the publication of the Connecticut Common School Journal, under the direction of the board of commissioners of common schools. In 1839 Horace Mann, secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education, began the issue of the Common School Journal' of Massachusetts. The District School Journal of the State of New York, published by Francis Dwight, appeared in March, 1840, the editor citing in the first issue the State publications of Michigan, Connecticut, and Massachusetts as a reason for aspiring to a place as a State organ. Barnard: XV, 383: Conn. Com. Sch. Jl., 1842, IV, 30. Ohio Jl. of Ed., 1862, VII, 224. Hoyt and Ford. J. D. Pierce, "Father of Mich. sch. system," 124-129. Com. Sch. Jl., 1839, I, 1. • District Sch. Jl., 1840, I, 1, 3. The Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction (1845), though nominally the organ of the institute, was edited by Henry Barnard, the State commissioner of schools, as was the Rhode Island Educational Magazine (1852), continued by his successors. The Common School Advocate (1848) was published by the secretary of the State Board of Education in Maine. Of these early State ventures, most of which were somewhat aided financially by the States, as well as others published under private auspices but given official encouragement, only two survived as long as 10 years, and none of the rest for half so long a period. State superintendents continued active in establishing such journals, and States made appropriations toward their support, a phase of the matter discussed later in this chapter. It is not difficult to recognize the dire need of "official organs" or means of communication with school officers in a frontier State, where school laws were in the making. Inadequate office facilities made the writing of many letters burdensome, if not impossible. Even circular letters, used to answer questions repeatedly asked and to stir enthusiasm for education among school officers and patrons, were both expensive and ineffective. The purposes of State superintendents and commissioners are frequently set forth in justification of their editorial efforts and the official organs. The purpose of the Connecticut Common School Journal' was— be the organ of # * * con to promote the elevated character of common schools communication between the board and secretary and the people tain the laws of the State * help school committees and school visitors, furnish some and inform as to what is doing * * help form, encourage, bring forward good teachers and of its work the official report was as follows:" Amid the jarring conflicts of party, and the louder claims of sectarian and other interests, the peaceful and unobtrusive cause of education has received but little attention from the public press generally, either political or religious. It was felt that a journal, kept sacredly aloof from the disturbing influences of party or sectarian differences, and made the organ of communication between committees, teachers, and friends of education in different parts of the State, the depository of all laws relating to schools, and of opinions on questions connected with their administration, and the vehicle of extended discussions and information on the whole subject, would be highly serviceable in awakening an active, intelligent, and efficient spirit in forwarding the cause. Horace Mann's Common School Journal' briefly states its purpose to be "improvement of the common schools and the means of popular education, not so much to discover as to diffuse knowledge contain laws, reports of the board." The District School Journal' of the State of New York, in speaking of the official papers of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Michigan, says: They are conducted under the superintendence of the officers charged with that subject and are made the organs of communicating to the subordinate officers, to teachers, and to the inhabitants of districts the various information necessary to the correct discharge of their duties and to prevent litigation. They contain also valuable essays upon reforms and improvements of the system, and discussions on various topics connected with education, calculated to awaken attention to the subject and produce a more active and vigorous spirit in forwarding the cause. 1 Griffin: Press of Maine. Barnard XV, 383; Me. Jl. of Ed., 1850, I, 14. Fourth Rep. Bd. of Commissioners of Common Schs., 1842. * 1839, I, 1. 1840, I, 2. The Common School Journal of Pennsylvania,' which aspired to an official status it never reached, was devised To promote a convenient and economical medium for conveying the laws of the Commonwealth and official communications from the superintendent of common schools to the board of directors in each school district of the State. The general purpose of the pioneer Michigan Journal of Education (1838) was set forth in its Latin motto, doubtless somewhat puzzling to many of the school officers who received it at State expense, Omnibus scientia sicut omnibus suffragia; literis enim crescit res publica et permanebit. As a summary of the purpose and value of a periodical to the State superintendent, the estimate of Supt. Gregory, of Michigan, is given: After coming into office I weighed carefully the question of exercising the authority given by law to the State superintendent of subscribing for a copy of the Journal of Education for each of the school districts of the State. The need of some such means of communication with the district officers had been frequently asserted by my predecessors and by the superintendents of other States. I finally, the 1st of March, subscribed for a sufficient number of copies to send one to every school director at the rate of 60 cents a year. The small sum of 60 cents to each district is surely no great price to pay for an agency that puts the department in monthly communication with every district board in the State. The Journal has been of great service in giving an early publication to the laws passed the last session, and in carrying the ordinary notifications of the department. A considerable portion of its cost has been saved to the State in the circulars which must otherwise have been issued, and the postage on them. It will be still more useful the coming year, and will probably save the department nearly its cost. Some of the States are accustomed to make appropriations for the circulation of tracts on the subject of education; this goes as a monthly tract to the district, and the influence it thus exercises in promoting the efficiency of our system of public instruction can not be too highly estimated.' He adds that it is sometimes circulated and read throughout the district. It being evident enough from the foregoing typical citations that the States could make good use of official periodicals, at least until school systems had passed the pioneer stage and achieved some measure of well-understood stability, an examination of some of the workings of such laws and official arrangements as were made, or in actual operation without formal recognition, will contribute to an understanding of this phase of educational journalism. The three most important ways in which States have assisted in the support of school journals are: (a) By direct financial aid, permitting or requiring the circulation of such periodicals, supported by appropriations from the State treasury; (b) By laws and regulations permitting or authorizing local boards or school officers to subscribe, making payment from local funds; (c) Through State superintendents and State boards of education by means of official and semiofficial "designations," circulars requesting or advising teachers and officers to subscribe, and pressure exerted by official connection with unofficial publications. Each of these will be considered in some detail, direct financial support most extensively. The first State appropriations of money to circulate school journals occurred in Ohio and in Michigan, where those States supported the Ohio Common School Director and the Michigan Journal of Education, respectively. Beginning with March, 1838, the first was continued through November of the same year, and the second until February, 1840. The suggestion of this measure for improving public education probably came from a reading of Cousins's report upon educa11844, I, No. 1. Mich. Jl. of Ed., 1860, 88. |