5 contigerit. Loca etiam inseri stipulationi solent, veluti 'Carthagine dare spondes?' quae stipulatio licet pure fieri videatur, tamen re ipsa habet tempus iniectum, quo promissor utatur ad pecuniam Carthagine dandam. et ideo si quis ita Romae stipuletur hodie Carthagine dare spondes?' inutilis 6 erit stipulatio, cum impossibilis sit repromissio. Condiciones, quae ad praeteritum vel ad praesens tempus referuntur, aut statim infirmant obligationem aut omnino non differunt: veluti si Titius consul fuit' vel 'si Maevius vivit, dare spondes?' nam si ea ita non sunt, nihil valet stipulatio: sin autem ita se habent, statim valet. quae enim per rerum naturam certa sunt, non morantur obligationem, licet apud nos incerta sint.

7

Non solum res in stipulatum deduci possunt, sed etiam

§ 5. An obligation may possibly be performable only in one place, as happens often in connection with immoveable property. In some cases again (as in the text) the place at which performance should be made is fixed, either expressly or by implication, by the parties. If this is so, the debtor is neither bound nor entitled to perform elsewhere, though, if the action by which the obligation was pursued was bonae fidei (or even stricti iuris, if demanding a facere) the creditor might sue elsewhere, the advantage or disadvantage accruing to the defendant being taken into account in fixing the damages. When the obligation was to convey (dare) a definite object or quantitas at a definite place, this could not be done until after the introduction of the praetorian arbitraria actio' de eo quod certo loco dari oportet,' Bk. iv. 6. 31 and 33 inf. In all other cases (i. e. where no place was fixed for the performance), the debtor was entitled to perform wherever he found the creditor, unless the place was bona fide inconvenient, Dig. 46. 3. 39, and was bound to perform at any place in which, should he refuse, the creditor actually obtained a judgment against him. The only exceptions to this are (1) that an heir cannot be compelled to pay legacies elsewhere than where the greater part of the inheritance is, Dig. 5. 1. 40. pr., (2) that where a man has to deliver a specific thing or quantity, he cannot be compelled to do this elsewhere than where the thing or quantity actually is, unless the creditor will take the risk and pay the cost of removal, Dig. 4. 1. 38.

§ 6. Where a condition is really satisfied, though upon this point there may be a subjective uncertainty-e. g. where A, not knowing that Titius has been consul, promises ten aurei if such is the case, the obligation is not really conditional, but absolute; hence legacies subject to such apparent conditions devolved on the heir of the legatee if the latter outlived the testator.

§ 7. Cf. Dig. 45. 1. 2. pr. stipulationum quaedam in dando, quaedam

facta ut si stipulemur fieri aliquid vel non fieri. et in huiusmodi stipulationibus optimum erit poenam subicere, ne quantitas stipulationis in incerto sit ac necesse sit actori probare, quid eius intersit. itaque si quis ut fiat aliquid stipuletur, ita adici poena debet: 'si ita factum non erit, tum poenae nomine decem aureos dare spondes?' sed si quaedam fieri, quaedam non fieri una eademque conceptione stipuletur, clausula erit huiusmodi adicienda: 'si adversus ea factum erit sive quid ita factum non erit, tunc poenae nomine decem aureos dare spondes?'

XVI.

DE DUOBUS REIS STIPULANDI ET PROMITTENDI.

Et stipulandi et promittendi duo pluresve rei fieri possunt. stipulandi ita, si post omnium interrogationem promissor respondeat 'spondeo.' ut puta cum duobus separatim stipulantibus ita promissor respondeat utrique vestrum dare spondeo: nam si prius Titio spoponderit, deinde alio interrogante spondeat, alia atque alia erit obligatio nec creduntur

in faciendo consistunt.' The advantage of the course recommended in the text was twofold. The promisee was saved the trouble of proving 'quid sua intersit' ('plerumque difficilis probatio est, quanti cuiusque intersit, et ad exiguam summam deducitur' Dig. 46. 5. 11); and if the contract came to be sued upon, the ground of action was not the promise to do, but the promise to pay so much in default, so that the remedy, instead of being the actio ex stipulatu, was condictio certi with its penal sponsio of one third of the sum in dispute: 'cum quis non adiecerit poenam ... incerti agendum esse' Dig. 2. 5. 3. If no interval was fixed for the performance of an act secured by a penalty, the latter could be sued for unless the act was performed within a reasonable time: 'intra quantum autem temporis, nisi detur quod arbiter iusserit, committatur stipulatio, videndum est, et si quidem dies adiectus non sit, Celsus scribit libro ii Digestorum inesse quoddam modicum tempus: quod ubi praeterierit, poena statim peti potest' Dig. 4. 8. 21. 12. The amount of the poena had no measure except the will of the parties, and it might be recovered in full, even though largely exceeding the value of the act or forbearance stipulated for, Dig. 4. 8. 32. pr.; 21. 2. 56. In English law this is different: 8 and 9 Will. III. c. 11; 4 and 5 Anne, c. 16; 23 and 24 Vict. c. 126; cf. Sir W. R. Anson's Law of Contract pp. 243-4.

Tit. XVI. For solidary and correal obligation (with one of the modes

duo rei stipulandi esse. duo pluresve rei promittendi ita fiunt: 'Maevi, quinque aureos dare spondes? Sei, eosdem quinque aureos dare spondes?' respondeant singuli separatim 'spondeo.' Ex huiusmodi obligationibus et stipulantibus 1 solidum singulis debetur et promittentes singuli in solidum tenentur. in utraque tamen obligatione una res vertitur: et vel alter debitum accipiendo vel alter solvendo omnium peremit obligationem et omnes liberat. Ex duobus reis 2 promittendi alius pure, alius in diem vel sub condicione obligari potest: nec impedimento erit dies aut condicio, quo minus ab eo qui pure obligatus est petatur.

XVII.

DE STIPULATIONE SERVORUM.

Servus ex persona domini ius stipulandi habet. sed hereditas in plerisque personae defuncti vicem sustinet: ideoque quod servus hereditarius ante aditam hereditatem stipulatur, adquirit hereditati ac per hoc etiam heredi postea facto adquiritur. Sive autem domino sive sibi sive conservo suo 1 sive impersonaliter servus stipuletur, domino adquirit. idem iuris est et in liberis, qui in potestate patris sunt, ex quibus

of creating which latter this Title deals) see Excursus VII at the end of this Book. The presumption of law was against joint liability, but it could be rebutted by the order of the stipulations: for if the answer were made to the same question put by two stipulators successively, there could not be two obligations, because the first would be invalidated by the interposition of the second, Dig. 45. 2. 12. pr., so that correality or joint liability results from the principle 'ubi ambigua oratio est, commodissimum est id accipi, quo res, de qua agitur, magis valeat quam pereat' Dig. 34. 5. 12.

§ 1. The characteristics pointed out in this section do not serve to draw the line between solidary and correal obligation: see Excursus VII. Tit. XVII. A slave became personally entitled as promisee in a contract only where he had no master, or where the master was himself the promisor-here because no one could simultaneously be debtor and creditor in the same obligation: but in both cases the obligatio was naturalis only, and did not become civilis even by the slave's manumission. For exceptions to the rule 'hereditas defuncti vicem sustinet' see Dig. 41. I. 61; 45. 3. 26; 47. 2. 68; 47. 4. I. 15.

§ 1. For ex quibus causis adquirere possunt' cf. 'si quid ex re patris

causis adquirere possunt. Sed cum factum in stipulatione continebitur, omnimodo persona stipulantis continetur, veluti 2 si servus stipuletur, ut sibi ire agere liceat: ipse enim tantum prohiberi non debet, non etiam dominus eius. Servus communis stipulando unicuique dominorum pro portione dominii 3 adquirit, nisi si unius eorum iussu aut nominatim cui eorum stipulatus est: tunc enim soli ei adquiritur. quod servus communis stipulatur, si alteri ex dominis adquiri non potest, solidum alteri adquiritur, veluti si res quam dari stipulatus est unius domini sit.

XVIII.

DE DIVISIONE STIPULATIONUM.

Stipulationum aliae iudiciales sunt, aliae praetoriae, aliae conventionales, aliae communes tam praetoriae quam iudiciales.

ei obveniat,... hoc parenti adquirat' Bk. ii. 9. 1 and notes supr.: note on Tit. 28. pr. inf.

§ 2. By factum here is meant something which is not a right, and therefore cannot become part of the property (Vermögen) of the dominus, e. g. Detention, or the mere personal license to cross land (which is not a servitude) suggested in the text: 'quod dicitur patrem filio utiliter stipulari, quasi sibi ille stipularetur, hoc in his verum est, quae iuris sunt quaeque adquiri patri sunt: alioquin si factum conferatur in personam filii, inutilis erit stipulatio, velut ut tenere ei vel ire agere liceat' Dig. 45. 1. 130; ib. 38. 6-8. But the master had a right of action if the promisor interfered with the slave's enjoyment of the license, Dig. 15. 1. 41.

§ 3. Cf. Tit. 28. 3 inf. In the time of Gaius (iii. 167 a) it was a question between the two schools whether a stipulation made by a slave 'unius domini iussu' enured to that master's sole benefit: the view adopted by Justinian was that of the Sabinians.

Tit. XVIII. Judicial and praetorian stipulations correspond to some of the English contracts of record, e. g. recognisances: they are so-called contracts entered into by one party to a judicial or quasi-judicial proceeding for the security or protection of the other at the order of the judge or magistrate. Mr. Hunter observes (Roman Law p. 290) that their real meaning is the weakness of the executive: it is much easier to get a man to promise not to do some particular thing, than, when it is done, to acknowledge it to be wrong, or to give compensation.' The division into judicial, praetorian, and common must have practically become unmeaning after the abolition of the ordo iudiciorum privatorum and with it of the distinction between magistrate and iudex, ius and iudicium.

1 Iudiciales sunt dumtaxat, quae a mero iudicis officio proficiscuntur: veluti de dolo cautio vel de persequendo servo 2 qui in fuga est restituendove pretio. Praetoriae, quae a mero praetoris officio proficiscuntur, veluti damni infecti vel legatorum. praetorias autem stipulationes sic exaudiri oportet, ut in his contineantur etiam aedilitiae: nam et hae ab iuris3 dictione veniunt. Conventionales sunt, quae ex conventione utriusque partis concipiuntur, hoc est neque iussu iudicis neque iussu praetoris, sed ex conventione contrahentium. quarum totidem genera sunt, quot paene dixerim rerum

§ 1. The de dolo cautio seems to have chiefly, if not solely, occurred in cases where bona fide possessors were sued by the owner: 'si post acceptum iudicium possessor usu hominem cepit, debet eum tradere eoque nomine de dolo cavere: periculum est enim ne eum vel pigneraverit vel manumiserit' Dig. 6. 1. 18, ib. 45: its purpose apparently was to secure the plaintiff against loss arising from possible misdealing with the property in the past, or even in the future, before it came into his hands. The cautio de persequendo, etc. was employed where a man got possession of another's slave, who then ran away, Dig. 4. 2. 14. 11, or where a slave bequeathed by a testator was enabled to decamp by the fault of the heres, Dig. 30. I. 47. 2.

§ 2. There is a reference in Gaius iv. 31 to an obsolete procedure on damnum infectum, which had been superseded by the praetor's provision, by which any one who apprehended damage to land or a house from the defective condition of another house or piece of land could require certain others, having rights over the latter, to enter into the cautio damni infecti, i.e. an express promise to make compensation for any such damage which actually occurred: the terms of the Edict are given in Dig. 39. 2. 7. pr. The right belonged not only to the owner of the threatened tenement, but also to persons having other real rights over it, or even detention in virtue of an obligation, Dig. 39. 2. 13, ib. 38. pr., but not to a bona fide possessor, Dig. ib. 11, ib. 13. 9: the cautio could be exacted from the owner, bona fide possessor (ib. 13. pr.), and others having iura in alieno solo, but it would not be granted if the person threatened already had a remedy in virtue of some relation actually existing between him and the other (e.g. lessee and lessor, Dig. ib. 32, ib. 13. 6); and it was not perpetual, but remained in force only for the period prescribed by the magistrate, Dig. ib. 4. pr. If not entered into within the time fixed at the hearing, the other party could claim to be put in. possession of the dangerous tenement by a magisterial decree, in order to examine into its condition and take measures of precaution, though without power to exclude his opponent and if, after the lapse of another interval, the latter had not given the required promise, his right passed by a second decree to the complainant, or, if inalienable, was extinguished.