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Albert II. German emperor, 1438-9.

ALBERT II.-ALCEUS

Albert, FRANCIS AUGUSTUS CHARLES EMMANUEL, 1819-1861. Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; married Queen Victoria Feb. 10, 1840; entitled Prince Consort 1857; patron of science and art, and prudent adviser of the queen. The Exhibition of 1851 grew out of a hint of his at a meeting of the Society of Arts. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, b. Nov. 9, 1841. He married Princess Alexandra of Denmark March 10, 1863; visited the U. S. and Canada 1859, Palestine 1862, India 1875-76; fieldmarshal in the British and German armies.

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Albert Medal. British decoration for heroism in saving life.-Also distinction conferred by the Society of Arts on persons eminent in promoting arts or commerce.

Albert Nyanza. Lake in e. Africa, source of the White Nile; ab. 100 m. by 25; discovered by Sir S. W. Baker 1864, and long confounded with L. Albert Edward, s. w.

Albert, PAUL, 1827-1880. Prof. Col. of France 1878; historian of French literature. Alberta. District in the Dominion of Canada, n. of the U. S. boundary, between British Columbia and Assiniboia; reaches on the n. to Athabasca. It is a good country for grazing, with severe winters. Area 106,500 sq. m.; Pop., 1891, 25,277.

Alberti, LEON BATTISTA, 1401-1472. Italian architect, painter, poet and musician, active in the Renaissance, and with Brunelleschi the founder of modern European architecture; called the Florentine Vitruvius. He was employed at Rome by Pope Nicholas V. in restoration and in decoration, and designed, after classic models, the Ch. of San Francesco at Rimini, his most celebrated work; St. Andrea at Mantua, one of the first of Italian domed churches; and the front of Sta. Maria Novella at Florence. He wrote books on sculpture, painting and architecture; the latter, De Re Edificatoria, 1485, is the best known. Albertinelli, MARIOTTO, 1474-1515. Florentine painter of the great period, pupil and follower of Fra Bartolommeo; best known by his fine painting in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, of the Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth.

Albertite. Variety of asphalt occurring in deep fissures in Lower Carboniferous and other rocks, chiefly of Nova Scotia. Albertus Magnus, 1193-1282. German Dominican, scholastic philosopher, theologian and alchemist. He was thoroughly educated in the learning of the time, and was especially familiar with the works of Aristotle and his Arabic commentators. His works were pub. in 21 vols. 1651.

Albertype. Photogelatin reproductions from nature, and from works of art, first made commercially valuable by Albert of Munich, after whom the process was named. His discovery consisted of a new method of fastening the gelatin film upon a glass plate which he used as a foundation, and it was the only method of using the gelatin film for pictorial purposes until Edwards of England devised a means of attaching the film to copper or other metals, thus making a base that was unattended by the risks and losses incidental to so friable a substance as glass, when subjected to the necessary pressure on the printing press. The Edwards invention is generally known as Heliotype, and is largely used for gelatin printing in this country and in Europe. See PHOTO-GELATIN. This process was perfected

ab. 1868.

Albigenses. Sect once powerful in s. France, and named from the town of Albé. Pope Innocent III. proclaimed (1208) a crusade against them, headed by Simon de Montfort. Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, who sympathized with them, was excommunicated and compelled to oppose his subjects with arms, and lead the army of monks and soldiers of fortune. A bloody war of extermination lasted intermittently till 1229. The Inquisition continued the process; many emigrated; Languedoc became a waste. The crusade facilitated the unification of France, but was a fatal blow to the nascent civilization of southern Europe. See DUALISM, CATHAZI and PAULICIANO.

Albinism. Production of white in organisms or organs nominally of some other color. Also, a condition resulting from the failure of the development of the pigment granules in the chromatophoral cells of the body. It occurs sporadically in probably all groups of animals, as well as in man. The resulting animal is an albino; e.g., white mice.

Albion. Early name distinguishing Great Britain from the islands about it. Pliny says they were together called British. Albite. Na,OAL,O,6SiO,. Mineral of the feldspar group, containing sodium as the principal alkaline element; a frequent ingredient in crystalline rocks.

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Alboin, d. 574. King of the Lombards, invader of Italy 568, and founder of the Lombard dominion there; killed for forcing his wife to drink from her father's skull.

Albolite Cement. Made of carbonate of magnesia and infusorial earth. It is used for repairing ornamental stonework, and also as a fire-proof coating for timber.

contralto of the time. She made a tour of America in 1853, Alboni, MARIETTA, 1823-1894. Most distinguished operatic became Countess Pepoli 1854, and retired 1863.

Al Borak. Shining steed with face and voice of a man, and wings of an eagle, on which Mohammed made his journeys to the seventh heaven.

Albrechtsberger, JOHANN GEORG, 1736-1809. German composer of church music, theoretician and organist; Beethoven's teacher in counterpoint 1794. Gründliche Anweisung zur Composition, 1790; Sämmtlichen Schriften über Generalbass, Harmonielehre und Tonsetzkunst, 1826.

Albright, JACOB, 1759-1808. Founder of the Evangelical Association of N. America (q. v.).

Albuera. Village of Spain, site of the defeat of the French under Soult by the British and Spanish forces under Beresford, May 16, 1811. French loss, 8,000; of the allies, 7,000.

Albumazar, 805-885. Arabian astronomer. Author of An Introduction to Astronomy and Book of Conjunction; both tr. into Latin; supposed author of a work on the Revolution of the Years.

Albumen. Nitrogenous substance constituting a large portion of all animal tissues, and a considerable part of many vegetable bodies; the white of egg is the most familiar example. In blood it is the main constituent of the serum. It contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. Constitution not known. Soluble in water, coagulated by heat, thus rendered insoluble in water. In Botany, starchy material surrounding or inclosing embryo of certain seeds, serving to nourish it, in germination. Such seeds are called albuminous; those devoid of this substance, exalbuminous. Also known as endosperm.

Album Græcum. Whitish hardened excrement of boneeating animals; that of the hyena occurs fossilized in the bone caves of Europe.

Albuminates. Combinations of albumen with certain bases, iron, alkalies, etc., and probably the form in which many of them exist in the body. Also, normal constituents of the body, such as myosin, produced by the action of acids upon albumen.

Albuminiparous Gland. Spleen-shaped gland lying near the ovotestes in a snail, and connecting with the gonaduct. Albuminoids. Bodies which resemble albumen and form the largest part of the solid portions of the body, except bones. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, are of unknown molecular arrangement, and important constituents of animal tissue. Among them are glue and gelatine. The term is in general applied to nitrogenous organic matter of unknown constitution, as diastase, pepsin, etc. They are necessary in articles of food on account of the nitrogen they contain. See PROTEIDS and PROTEIN.

Albuminose. Albumen rendered absorbable by action of the gastric juice, or an albuminoid acted upon by hydrochloric acid.

Albuminuria. Presence of albumen in urine, due as a rule to affection of kidneys. Usually the quantity present indicates severity of the disease. The transient forms occur after scarlet fever or surgical operations, during fevers, pregnancy, and a number of other diseases, and sometimes in health after heavy meals of nitrogenous food, cold baths, severe exercise, and mental excitement, and are generally of little moment. When constant, it is a symptom either of serious disease of the kidneys or of some grave constitutional affection. By heating a small quantity of urine in a test tube and adding nitric acid, a curdy precipitate is formed if albumen be present, and if strong nitric acid is added to cold urine so as to float on top, a white disc forms between the two when albumen is present.

Albuquerque, ALPHONSO DE, 1452-1515. Portuguese general. He served in Africa and India, where he laid the foundation for Portugal's Eastern empire; was Viceroy of the Indies 1509, captured Goa 1510, Malacca 1511, Ormuz 1515.

Alburnum. Sapwood of exogenous plants; named from its light color.

Alcæus, 7th century B.C. First Æolic lyric poet, considered by many the greatest of this class. He lived at Mitylene in Lesbos, and died in exile. Only fragments remain. Horace admired and imitated him. The Alcaic meter was named from

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ALCALA DE HENARES-ALCIDE

Alcala de Henares. City of Spain, 21 m. e. of Madrid, birthplace of Cervantes; pop. ab. 12,000. Its University, founded by Cardinal Ximenes 1510, and long eminent, was transferred to Madrid 1836. The Complutensian Polyglot Bible was printed

here 1502-17.

Alcamo, GIULIO D'. Sicilian poet of 12th century, in the dawn of Italian literature.

Alcannin. Coloring matter occurring in root of Anchusa tinctoria, the Alkanet.

Alcántara. Town of w. Spain, on the Tagus. By defeating the Portuguese army here, June 24, 1580, the Duke of Alva gained Portugal for Spain.

Alcantara, ORDER OF. Spanish order of knighthood, instituted 1156 by Hadria II., king of Leon.

Alcarraza. Vessel made of porous pottery, and employed in warm climates for cooling water. The outer surface is always covered with a layer of moisture, which evaporates rapidly, thus keeping the temperature of the vessel and its contents much lower than that of the surrounding air; also called "monkey."

Alcazar Queber. Town near Fez, Africa, scene of a total defeat of the Portuguese by the Moors, Aug. 4, 1578, in which King Sebastian and most of his nobles were slain.

Alcedinidæ. Family of Cuculi, including the Kingfishers, of which there are 150 species, mostly old world and tropical forms. The western hemisphere has but one genus (Ceryle). In the old world are two types-Alcedo, with long scapulars, and Halcyon, with short. The Laughing Jackass of Australia, as large as a crow and living on small reptiles, illustrates the latter. The fish-eating kingfishers belong to the former type.

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They are gorgeous in plumage, and rear their young in holes in the bank of the shore. A fable that it breeds during the reign of calms, in the subtropical ocean, has given rise to the expression "halcyon days."

Alcedinoideæ. Sub-order of Cuculi, including the families: Meropida (bee-eaters), Todida, Momotida (motmots), Alcedinidae (king-fishers), and Bucerotida (horn-bills).

Alcestis. Wife of Admetus, who died in her husband's stead and was brought back from Hades by Hercules.

Alchemy. Delusive art, which with chemistry probably originated in Arabia, A. D. 700. The Smaragdine Table and all books attributed to Hermes Trismegistus, called the father of alchemy, were doubtless the production of monks of the Middle Ages. The alchemists believed in the transmutation of metals, and sought for the Philosopher's Stone, which would convert base metals into gold and silver, and the Elixir of Life, to prolong human existence. They worked in the utmost secrecy and with many mysterious books, most of which contained much incomprehensible and, to the scientist of the present day, nonsensical matter. These writings are in many languagesArabic, Greek, Persian and Latin. The sources of knowledge of the early alchemists were the writings of Aristotle, Dioscorides, Lucretius, Archimedes, Hero and Pliny. Arabia was the seat of learning; the University of Bagdad in the 9th century, Cordova and Cairo in the 10th, were centers. Geber wrote one of the first works on alchemy. He had many chemical appliances, understood distillation and filtration, and made a number of chemical preparations. Among the more noted alchemists are: Avicenna, 11th century; Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Raymund Lully, Roger Bacon and Arnoldus

Alchemical Representation of the Transmutation of the Elements. to free chemistry from the meshes of alchemy and mysticism. Paracelsus held the first chair of chemistry at Bale and pointed out the value of chemistry to medicine. Boerhaave, 1669-1738, was the last eminent chemist to support the doctrines of the alchemists.

Alcibiades. Ab. 450-404 B.C. Athenian, gifted but unworthy pupil of Socrates. Appointed one of the commanders of the Sicilian expedition 415 B.C., but charged with mutilating the Hermae at Athens and recalled from Sicily to stand trial, he went to Sparta and acted as enemy of Athens; took refuge with Tissaphernes 412 B.C., returned to Athens 407 B.C., and was made commander-in-chief, but superseded 406 B.C.; went into exile and was slain in Phrygia by assassins.

Alcidæ. Family of Cecomorpha, including (1) the Sea Dove, or Dovekie (Alle alle), which swarms on rocky shores in the

Plautus impennis.

ALCINOUS-ALDOBRANDINI WEDDING

Alcolea, SPAIN. Scene of the defeat of Isabella's forces by Serrano, Sept. 28, 1868.

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thor, peddler, school-master, philosopher." See his
Alcott, AMOS BRONSON, 1799-1888. American au-
Life, 2 vols., by F. B. Sanborn and W. T. Harris, 1893.

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western Arctic Ocean, especially off Spitzbergen. They indicate the gravity of water. The presence of alcohol causes habit caves or crevices, and feed on crustacea and worms. the hydrometer to sink in the liquid; by consulting the calSome are seen out at sea off the coast of the n. U. S. in winter. culated tables the amount of alcohol can be deterThe sides of the head, neck and chest are sooty brown in sum- mined. mer, but white in winter. Sometimes called Little Auk. (2) The true Auks (Alca) are sub-arctic, breeding on Newfoundland and adjacent shores, and in winter come as far south as Cape Cod or farther. They grow to a length of 17 in., about twice that of Alle. (3) The Great Auk or Gare-fowl (Plautus impennis) attained a length of 30 in., and is believed to have been exterminated 1844. It had normal wing quills, but was unable to fly. Of the 76 priceless skins of this bird now known, only five are in American museums. It was known as the Arctic Penguin (see PENGUIN). (4) Murres (Uria) and Guillemots (Cephus) swarm off rocky shores in Arctic regions. Five species come south in winter as far as New Jersey. (5) Puffins (Fratercula). These are all alike in having three webbed toes and no hind toe, and in possessing the characters of the Cecomorpha. They lay their eggs in hollows, on rocky ledges, and are an important source of food for arctic peoples.

Alcinous. Grandson of Poseidar; king of the Phæacians in the island Scheria, according to the Odyssey.

Alciphron. Ab. 170-200. Greek sophist. Many letters of his remain delineating various characters.

Aleman. Doric Greek lyric poet of 7th century B. C. Alcmene. Wife of Amphitryon and mother of Hercules by Zeus.

Alcock, SIR RUTHERFORD, D.C.L., b. 1809. British minister to Japan 1859, and to China 1865-71. Capital of the Tycoon, 1863: Art in Japan, 1873.

Alcohol. Ethyl Alcohol, Spirits of Wine, Spirits, CH, CH,OH. Bpt. 78.3°C. Sp. Gr. 0.79 at 15°C. Colorless liquid produced by the action of the alcoholic ferment upon certain sugars, starches, fruit juices, etc.

In Germany it is made by treating potatoes with malt which contains the ferment, diastase. This converts the potatostarch into a sugar which when fermented yields alcohol. In America it is made from corn; in England from various grains; and in India from rice. Alcohol is the principal solvent for organic compounds; hence it is used extensively for the manufacture of perfumery, varnishes, tinctures of drugs, and for scientific purposes. Its use in various beverages is what has given it its great prominence. In order to purify alcohol it is rectified, i.e., distilled a number of times or subjected to repeated distillation in one operation. The absolute alcohol of commerce contains from 0.5-0.2 per cent of water, while the socalled 95 per cent usually contains ab. 93.5 per cent alcohol. If alcohol be taken into the system in small quantities, it is absorbed by the system and disappears. In larger quantities it congests the stomach, impairs digestion and passes through the liver and kidneys unchanged, hardening and shrinking them. The most dangerous effects are upon the nervous system. It is useful to convalescents and consumptives. In acute diseases it relieves depression.

Alcohols. Combination of a hydroxyl (-OH) group or groups with a hydrocarbon group or radical. The compounds are organic hydroxides, and correspond in constitution to the inorganic hydroxides. They are acted upon by acids, usually neutralizing the acid and forming a salt. By oxidation they furnish aldehydes, ketones and acids. Examples: methyl alcohol, CH,OH; ethyl alcohol, C,H,OH; and glycerine, C,H,(OH),.

Alcohol Engine. Designed to use the expansive force of the vapor of alcohol instead of steam in the cylinder; proposed by Edmund Cartwright 1797, and by Thomas Howard 1825-30. Alcohol was vaporized at each stroke by being injected on a surface of highly-heated oil, and after having driven the piston it was condensed on a large surface of metal, to be used again. There is no theoretical advantage in the use of alcohol vapor rather than water, and the combustibility of the material is a serious drawback.

Alcoholism. Morbid results of excessive or prolonged use of alcoholic liquors. The occasional excessive indulgence is termed acute alcoholism or inebriety. The long-continued use causes what is termed chronic alcoholism, results in severe morbid derangements or disorders of the digestive, respiratory and nervous system, and is the common cause of delirium tremens. Some are subject to a species of alcoholism which periodically induces them to great excesses in the use of liquor. A mild form of alcoholism is the habitual use of alcoholic stimulants in moderate quantities.

Alcoholometer. A hydrometer graduated to indicate the percentage of alcohol in liquors. It is made of glass. and contains a thermometer. The lowest graduations in

Alcott, LOUISA MAY, 1832-1888. American writer of juvenile stories; daughter of Amos B. Little Women, 1868; Little Men, 1871.

Alcuin, ab. 735-804. English scholar, who spent his later life in France as the adviser of Charlemagne. Philosophy, learning and education owe much to him. Alcyonaria. Anthozoan polyps (often in colonial aggregates) with eight pinnate tentacles and eight mesenteric folds. In many cases they secrete a common horny axis, which they encrust with scleroderma; usually dioecious. There are four families: Alcy- Alcoholonida, Pennatulidæ, Gorgonidae, and Tubiporida.

ometer.

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Aldegrever, HEINRICH, 1502-1558. German artist. "More conspicuous for inventive power than for noble form." He belongs to the school of wood-engravers headed by Albrecht Durer; his paintings are rare and unimportant.

Aldehyde. CH,COH. Oxidation products prepared from the alcohols, containing the group C-OH. By oxidation they furnish organic acids. An aldehyde may be considered as an intermediate step between an alcohol and an acid. See also ACETALDEHYDE.

Aldehyde Ammonia. C,H,ONH,. White crystalline compound formed by combination of acetaldehyde with ammonia gas. This action is characteristic of the aldehydes as a class.

Alden, MRS. ISABELLA (McDonald), b. 1841. American author of juvenile tales. Pansy Books.

Mass., 1620; connected with public affairs for 67 years. His story Alden, JOHN. One of the pilgrims who settled in Plymouth, is told in Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish.

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European alder (Alnus glutinosa).
Alder. Shrubs or trees of the genus Alnus.
Alder, Black. See WINTERBERRY.
Alder, White. See PEPPERBUSH.
Alderman. Official of English or American cities; origi-
nally an "elder" or nobleman.

Alderney. Channel island belonging to Great Britain, 15 m. n. e. of Guernsey; source of a famous breed of cattle. Aldershot. Camp of 7,063 acres, 18 m. from Windsor, Eng., opened 1855 for military training and evolutions; also town, pop. over 20,000.

Aldobrandini Wedding. Small ancient fresco in the Vatican library, found on grounds of Aldobrandini Villa, near Rome. Though house-painter's work, it represents the finest

ALDOL-ALEXANDER

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Aldrich, ANNE REEVE, 1866-1892. American poet and novelist. Rose of Flame, 1889; Feet of Love, 1890; Songs about Life, Love and Death, 1892.

Aldrich, THOMAS BAILEY, b. 1836. American poet and novelist; Ed. Atlantic Monthly, 1881-92. Babie Bell, 1856; A Bad Boy, 1870; Marjorie Daw, 1873; Stillwater Tragedy, 1880; Ponkapog to Pesth, 1883.

Aldridge, IRA, ab. 1805-1867. American actor of African descent and English training, highly esteemed throughout Europe.

Aldrovandi, ULYSSES, 1522-1607. Prof. at Bologne, 1554. Natural History, 1599.

Ale. Malt liquor used in England before beer was known; now differing from beer (q.v.) by its greater strength.

Aleardi, ALEARDO. Italian poet, imprisoned by the Austrians for his revolutionary zeal, 1859. His chief poems are Le Prime Storie (Primal Histories). His later poems are nearly all lyrical.

Alecithal. Eggs that have no yolk, but are entirely protoplasmic; small, usually microscopic.

Alecsandresen, GRIGORIE, 1812-1886. Roumanian poet and statesman. The Year, 1840.

Alecsandri, VASILE, 1821-1890. Roumanian poet; minister to France, 1885. Elegics, 1853.

Alecteropodes. Sub-order of Gallina, including the families Tetraonida (grouse), Phasianida (pheasants), Meleagridæ (turkeys). The group includes those Gallina or Rasores which have feet like a fowl, the hind toe being short and inserted high up off the ground.

Alecto. One of the furies of Eumenides.

acters intermediate between this group and the Gallinacei, Alectoridæ (Bustards). Family of Grallatores, of char

Great Bustard (Otis tarda).

having long legs like the former and a beak like the latter.
There is no hallux or hind toe. The tail is long and wings well
developed; otherwise they have cursorial characters.
rarely fly; are polygamous, and confined to the Old World. See
They
GRUIOIDEÆ.

Alectorides. See PALUDICOLE.

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Alepocephalus. Genus of fishes having no scales on the head. German "black glass-head."

Aleppo. City of Syria, formerly one of the chief of Asiatic Turkey; important commercially; partly destroyed by earthquake, 1822. Pop. ab. 100,000.

Alerse. Chilian name for a large tree of natural family Gaul; taken and destroyed by Cæsar 52 B. C., and by the NorConiferæ; Libocedrus tetragona, highly valued for its timber.

Alesia. Fortified town of the Mandubii on Mt. Auxois, in

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mans 864.

Alessandria. City of n. Italy, founded 1168; noted for its citadel, strengthened by Napoleon I. Pop. ab. 31,000. Alethopteris. Genus of very large ferns, found in the lower coal measures.

Aletsch. Largest Swiss glacier, over 12 m. long. Aleurone. Substance which occurs in seeds and more rarely in other vegetable organs, consisting of grains of nitrogenous organic substance, or proteid.

Aleutian Islands. Group of ab. 150 in N. Pacific, stretching from peninsula of Alaska, through 25° of longitude, nearly to Kamtchatka; discovered by Behring 1728; volcanic with little vegetation; some of them active volcanoes. The seal, sea-otter and Arctic fox are found here. They belong to the U. S.

Aleuts. Indians of the Aleutian Islands and adjacent lands; those living in Alaska are the Unalaska. Ab. 4,000 in all. They are closely related to Eskimos; are Mongolioid; depend on seal-fishing, utilizing every part of the animal. Their They are noted for their gentleness and integrity; but when homes are burrows, with two rooms, a kitchen and a bed-room. angered are uncontrollable. Many have been converted to the forts of civilized people. Russian Church. The Unalaska have adopted some of the com

Alewife. See ISOSPONDYLI and CLUPEIDÆ.

Alexander, THE GREAT, 356-323 B. C. Son of Philip II. of Macedon; educated by Aristotle. He aided largely in gaining the victory of Charonea 338; ascended the throne 336; speedily crushed rebellion at home and in Greece; started on his expedition against Persia 334; traversed Asia Minor; de

Alectoromorphæ. Order of birds including nearly all
the Gallinacei, such as Grouse, Partridges, Phasianidae and
Megapodiidae; or the Alecteropodes and Peristeropodes.
Aleman, MATTEO, ab. 1560 ab. 1610. Spanish novelist. His feated Darius at Issus 333, took Tyre 332; founded Alexan-
Don Guzman d'Alfarache, 1599, was extremely popular.

Alemanni. "All men." German tribes who lived on the Main ab. 200; defeated by Julian 357, and by Clovis 496, whereupon their union was dissolved. Hence comes Allemand, the French word for German.

dria; utterly crushed the Persians near Arbela, Oct. 331; from 330 to 327 was occupied in pursuit of Darius and conquest of regions to e. and n.; invaded India 327, and pushed to the Hydaspes; his army refusing to go further he proceeded down the river, reaching the Indian Ocean 326 and Susa 325; in spring of 324 returned to Babylon, which he intended to make his

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