been to some extent preceded by the English Dr. Young, from his wholly original discovery that the language used was the parent of the Coptic; hence, through the study of Coptic, the possibility of reading old Egyptian. Grammaire Egyptienne, 3 vols., 1836-41; Monuments de l'Egypte et de la Nubie, 5 vols., 1835-45.

Champollion-Figeac, JEAN JACQUES, 1778-1867. French antiquary and librarian of Fontainebleau under Napoleon III. Chronicles of the Greek Kings of Egypt, 1819; Treatise on Archæology, 1843.

Chance. Causeless or, more properly, undesigned connections between phenomena; opposed to the notion of purpose, but not to cause. See PROBABILITY.

Chancel. Railed space surrounding the altar; also called

ainevallo Neufchatean

CHAUMONT

Nogentle Bol Bourbonne Los Rains

Langres

Champagne.

was united to France 1328, and was the scene of warfare 1792, 1814, and 1870. It is now divided into the departments of Ardennes, Marne, Upper Marne and Aube.

Champaigne, PHILIPPE DE, 1602-1674. Portrait painter of Flemish birth, prominent at Paris.

Champ de Mars. Open space in Paris on left bank of the Seine. The Franks held their assemblies here. It has been the scene of notable gatherings and festivals, and of several International Exhibitions, 1867, 1878, 1889.

Champerty. Maintaining a suit for one of the parties in consideration of a bargain for a share of his recovery. At common law, such a maintainer was liable to a criminal prosecution, and to a civil action for damages by the opposing litigant. The champertous bargain was unenforceable. In most of the U. S. it is neither a crime nor a tort.

Champfleury. See FLEURY, J. F. F. H.

Champion Hills. In Hinds co., Miss.; scene of a Union victory by Grant and McClernand, May 16, 1863. Champion Lode. Largest and most persistent of several lodes that had a common origin.

Champlain, SAMUEL DE; 1567-1635. French explorer. He first visited Canada 1603, began the settlement of Quebec 1608, and was gov. 1612-28 and 1633-35. Voyages to New France, 1632.

Champlain, LAKE. Between N. Y. and Vt., projecting into Canada; drained into the St. Lawrence by Richelieu R. Area 488 sq. m.; elevation 101 ft. It was discovered by Champlain 1608, was the scene of Arnold's defeat Oct. 13, 1776, and of McDonough's naval victory near Plattsburgh Sept. 11, 1814. Champlin, JAMES TIFT, D.D., 1811-1882. Prof. Waterville Coll., Me., 1841-57; pres. 1857-72; author of classical and other

textbooks.

Champlin, JOHN DENISON, b. 1834. American editor of cyclopædias and juvenile books. Painters and Painting, 1888; Music and Musicians, 1888.

Champney, JAMES WELLS, b. 1843. American genre painter, working largely in pastel. Champollion, JEAN FRANCOIS, 1791-1832. French Egypttologist, famed for deciphering the hieroglyphics in 1821. In this we separate his reading of the characters in which he had

Choir and Chancel of the Abbey of St. Denis. Sanctuary; much more jealously secluded from the laity in the Eastern than in the Western Ch.

Chancellor. High officer of a State, university, or other organization, with functions varied and partly legal. The British Lord Chancellor is the most prominent surviving example.

Chancellorsville. In Spottsylvania co., Va. Here, May 2-5, 1863, the Union forces under Hooker were defeated, losing 17,000 out of 132,000 men; Lee lost 13,000 out of ab. 60,000.

Chancery, COURT OF. Named from the chancellor or presiding judge. It originated in the inability of the common law courts to do complete justice in many cases, and developed into the most important judicial tribunal in England. See EQUITY.

Chancre. Ulcerative process of the skin or mucous membranes, which is the initial lesion of syphilis, and which may appear at any time between ten days and two months after exposure or inoculation. It is painless, has a hard parchmentlike base, and its secretion gives rise to a similar process when inoculated upon another, but not upon the individual from whom it has been taken. The neighboring glands usually enlarge, are painless, and do not as a rule suppurate. See SYPHILIS.

Chancroid. Ulcer, contracted by impure sexual congress, which discharges pus freely, which latter, inoculated upon the person from whom it is, or upon another, gives rise to a similar sore. The neighboring glands enlarge as a rule, are painful, and generally suppurate. No constitutional symptoms follow this disease, and it is only dangerous on account of the amount of tissue which may be destroyed if it is neglected.

Chandler, CHARLES FREDERICK, M.D., LL.D., b. 1836. Prof. of Chemistry, Union Coll. 1857; Columbia School of Mines 1864; Coll. Physicians and Surgeons, N. Y., 1872; Columbia Coll. 1877; College Pharmacy, N. Y., 1866; Pres. N. Y. Board of Health 1873-83; ed. with his brother, American Chemist, 1870-77.-His brother, WILLIAM HENRY, Ph.D., b. 1841, has been prof. at

Chandler, JOHN, 1806-1876. English translator of Latin hymns. His versions, 1887, were nearly the first to appear on a large scale, and are in extensive use.

Chandler, SETH C., b. 1845. American astronomer; vented the almucantar and catalogued the variable stars.

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Chandler, WILLIAM EATON, b. 1835. U. S. Sec. Navy

1882-85; U. S. Senator from N. H. since 1887.

Chandler, ZACHARIAH, 1813-1879. U. S. Senator from Mich. 1857-75; Sec. Interior 1875-77.

Chang and Eng, 1811-1874. Siamese twins, inseparably joined by nature; exhibited in U. S. and Europe 1829-54. They

married sisters in N. C.

Changarnier, NICOLAS ANNE THEODULE, 1793-1877. French general, in Algeria 1830-48, in exile 1851-70.

Changchow. City of China, on a branch of the Lung Kiang. It has extensive silk manufactures. Pop. ab. 800,000. Change of State. Passage of a body from one of the three states of matter to another; i.e., from the solid to the liquid, or from the liquid to the gaseous. It is always accompanied by thermal changes which vary in different cases and are dependent upon the nature of the substance under consideration. E.g., water is formed from ice by the expenditure of 79.2 calories of heat for each kilogram. This is called the heat of liquefaction of water. The heat of vaporization in the case of steam is 537 calories.

Changing-House. Place where miners change their clothing when going to work underground.

Chank Shell. Favorite ornament of the Hindoo women, worn as bangles, etc. Enormous prices are paid for some varieties which come from the Indian and Pacific Oceans. They are Turbinella species of mollusks.

Chanler, MRS. AMELIE (RIVES), b. 1863, m. 1888. Virginia novelist. The Quick or the Dead?, 1888; Barbara Dering, 1892; also dramas, Herod, 1889; Athelwold, 1893.

Channel. Bed of a canal or trough for conveying water. The most economic proportion for the rectangular cross-section of a channel is when its width is double its depth.

Channel, ENGLISH. Between England and France; in width from 21 to 140 m.

Channeling Machine. Apparatus for quarrying stone,

Channeling Machine.

consisting of vertical chisels which cut a narrow channel several feet in length and depth around the portions to be removed; used in excavating rock to form a canal or railroad cut; of recent introduction, but found very efficient when large masses of rock are to be excavated.

and others, n. w. of France; belonging to England since the Channel Islands. Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, Sark, Norman conquest. Total area 65 sq. m.; pop., 1891, 92,272.

Channels, OFFICIAL. Those through which official corretions from an inferior to a superior, or vice versa, pass through spondence is transmitted in the military service. Communicathe intermediate commanders. Official correspondence passes through the adjutant-gen. or adjutant of the command; chiefs of bureaus of the War Department correspond directly with their subordinate officers upon matters relating to the duties of the bureau.

Channel Tunnel. Partially executed work 23 m. in length between Dover and Sangatte near Calais, to avoid the horrors of the Channel passage. Begun in 1876 it has been stopped on account of possible military complications, only one-tenth being completed. It is estimated to cost $20,000,000. Channing, WILLIAM ELLERY, D.D., 1780-1842. Pastor in Boston from 1803; most eminent pulpit orator of his school, and most saintly and revered of American Unitarians. Of that body he led the "orthodox" or "evangelical" wing, as Theodore Parker did the radical side. He wrote little beyond sermons, but his influence was wide and deep.-His Memoir, 3 vols., 1848, is by his nephew, WILLIAM HENRY, 1810-1884. -Another nephew, named from him, b. 1818, pub. 5 vols. of verse, and Thoreau, the Poet-Naturalist, 1873.

Chansar. East Indian game known as pachisi, played with three dice instead of cowrie shells. Two kinds of dice are used, consisting of square prisms of bone or ivory ab. 2 in. long, or similar prisms, much smaller and sharpened at both ends. These dice are marked on the sides with dots. "one," "two," "six," and "five," and are rolled from the hand. The game is of great antiquity, descending from the divinatory arrow games. It is one of the steps in the evolution of Chess.

Chanson de Roland. Anglo-Norman epic ab. 1090. author unknown; "greatest of Old French poems." Chansons de Gestes. Narrative poems of 11th century, on historical subjects; earliest form of French literature.

Chant. Melodic formula for the recitation of psalms and canticles; formerly consisting of three parts, Intonation, Mediation, and Termination, or closing cadence, separated by recitations on the dominant of the mode. The source of a chant is indicated by adjectives like Gregorian, Anglican, Gallican, etc. This form of Ch. music was developed by Ambrose and Gregory.

Chantilly. Estate and castle 23 miles n. n. e. of Paris, famed as the magnificent residence of the Princes of Condé where royalty was frequently entertained. Demolished during the French Revolution, it was afterward bought and rebuilt by the Duc d'Aumale, who turned it into an art-palace and presented it to the French nation in 1886.

Chantilly. In Fairfax co., Va.; scene of a battle, Sept. 1, 1862. Union loss 1,300; Confederate, 800.

Chantrey, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT, 1781-1841. English sculptor, R. A. 1818, knighted 1837.

Chantry. Small chapel forming part of a church, to provide masses for the dead. Originally a memorial containing

the tomb of the founder.

Chanute, OCTAVE, b. 1832. French-American civil engineer and writer on railroad construction and on aeronautics. Aerial Navigation, 1893.

Chanzy, ANTOINE EUGENE ALFRED, 1823-1883. French general commanding 2d Army of the Loire Dec. 1870; defeated at Le Mons Jan. 1871; gov. of Algeria 1873-79; life senator 1875; ambassador to Russia 1879-81.

Chaos. In mythology the infinite void which existed before the creation of the world, from which arose the gods, men, and all things.

Chap-Books. Small volumes sold by peddlers, prevalent in Europe ab. 1600-1800.

Chapeau en fer. French term, equivalent to the English gossan or gozzan, ferruginous quartz.

Chapel. Smaller and subordinate house of worship, attached to and dependent on a parish church; or one used by dissenters from an established Ch.; also an apartment in a public or private building devoted exclusively to worship.

Chapelain, JEAN, 1595-1674. French epic and lyric poet, satirized by Boileau. La Pucelle, 1656.

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Chapin, EDWIN HUBBELL, D.D., LL.D., 1814-1880. versalist pastor in N. Y. from 1848; one of the most eloquent preachers and lecturers of his time.

In

Chaplain. Clergyman attached to an army post or regiment, to a vessel, jail, college, or nobleman's household. the U. S. Army he has the rank of captain of infantry. The law provides for 30 post chaplains and 4 chaplains for the 4 colored regiments; viz., the 9th and 10th of cavalry, and the 24th and 25th of infantry.

Chaplin, CHARLES JOSHUA, 1825-1891. French portrait painter and decorator, of English parentage. Chapman, ALVAN WENTWORTH, M.D., b. 1809. American botanist. Flora of the Southern U. S., 1860.

Chapman, GEORGE, 1557-1634. Eng. dramatist. More successful in translating Homer. Iliad, 1598-1611; Odyssey, 1614-15. Chapman, JOHN GADSBY, 1808-1889. American painter who spent much time in Italy. His Baptism of Pocahontas is in the Capitol at Washington.

Chapone, MRS. HESTER (MULSO), 1727-1801, m. 1760. Eng. author. Improvement of the Mind, 1772; Works, 4 v., 1807. Chappe, CLAUDE, 1760-1805. French inventor of a telegraph 1792.

Chapped Hands. Inflammation or chilblain, caused by exposure to cold; sometimes eczema.

Chappell, WILLIAM, 1809-1888. English music publisher: ed. Popular Music of Olden Time, 1855-59. Hist. Music, 1874. Chapsal, CHARLES PIERRE, 1788-1858. Author, with F. Noel, of a most successful French grammar, 1823.

Char. See SALVELINUS.

Characeæ. Class of plants of aquatic habit, placed in the system between Mosses and Algæ, usually regarded as belonging to the sub-kingdom Thallophyta. Many species give off sulphuretted hydrogen in decaying and are very offensive. They extract calcium carbonate from the water and become covered with it as an incrustation. Commonly called brittleworts or stoneworts.

Characin. Substance contained in the Characeœ and in certain Algae and Palmellaceae, which has an extremely fetid odor, resembling that of sulphuretted hydrogen.

Character. Nature of a man, looked upon as a composite of moral qualities of special kinds and relative strength, and as the result of the whole series of influences and training to which he has been subjected.

Character. In Biology, features of an organism or group of organisms which distinguish it. from others.

Characteristic. Integral part of a logarithm. In common logarithms, adding one to the characteristic multiplies the number corresponding to the logarithm by ten: the characteristic thus determines the order of the number in the general scale.

Charade. Puzzle which divides a word into syllables and indicates each ("my first," etc.), and then the whole, by some relation or resemblance. This may be dramatized in acted

charades.

Jean Antoine Chaptal.

French chemist and manufacturer; Minister of the Interior 1801-4; ennobled 1811. Chemistry Applied to the Arts, 1806.

Chapter-House. Room or building in which the governing body of a cathedral or abbey-church transacted the business of the corporation. In a cathedral it was often of elaborate design and costly workmanship.

Chapu, HENRI, 1833-1891. French sculptor. His Mercury and Joan of Arc are in the Louvre.

Chapultepec. Mexican fort, taken Sept. 13, 1847, by the

Chapultepec.

Charadromorphæ. See GRALLE.

Charbon. The disease ANTHRAX (q.v.).

Charcoal. Made by heating wood in a closed vessel without admittance of air, so that the water and volatile matters it contains are driven off, leaving the fixed carbon and ash. This may be done in large ovens or retorts and the products of the distillation condensed; or else the wood is charred in an open pile, the heat developed by the complete combustion of part of the wood being used to char the rest. The latter method is the original one used in the forests by the charcoal burners, and is conducted as follows: a level piece of ground is selected in a sheltered spot, and in the center a large stake is driven. Around this the pieces of wood in ab. 4-foot lengths are piled, either

on end or flat, the spaces between the large pieces being filled with small branches, twigs, etc. (fig. 1). A pile may be 20 to 60 ft.in diameter, and 5 to12 ft. high. The outside is covered with wet leaves and earth. The stake in the center is then pulled out, leaving a chimney, into which some shavings and light wood are dropped and Fig. 1.-Charcoal Pile; vertical section. fired. Openings to let in air are now made around the outside edge of the pile against the ground.

The fire burns very slowly, at first giving off a thin, yellow smoke, which consists of the volatile matter from the wood. After several days the smoke becomes gray, and then the openings admitting air are closed and the pile left to burn slowly with a very small admission of air, such as leaks in through the cracks in the outer covering. The pile shrinks as the wood chars, and needs continual watching to prevent it firing and being entirely consumed. Toward the end of the charring the openings around the edge are again opened to draw the draft that way and char the outer layers of wood. Small piles are carbonized in 6 to 14 days; large piles require a month or more. Wood gives 15 to 25 per cent of its weight of charcoal, according to the slowness with which it is charred, and the care with which the pile is extin

guished. Sometimes the pile is made rectangular, with stakes around the sides to keep it in shape (fig.2). These methods of charring, while cheap and capable of being conducted out in the forest, have the

disadvantage of allowing Fig.2.-Charcoal-burning; rectangular heap. all the volatile matter to escape. In the U. S. charcoal-burn

ing is done in kilns connected with condensers. The ovens are either rectangular, cylindrical, or conical, with a capacity of 50 to 100 cords of wood, yielding 1,000 to 4,000 bushels of charcoal. The wood is fired and part allowed to burn in order to char the rest, as in an open pile, but the gases coming off are all condensed. Both rectangular and cylindrical kilns are hard to keep air-tight, and have been largely displaced by the conical one (fig. 3). Sometimes the retorts are made small and the heat applied from without, thus allowing a more perfect condensation of the volatile matters, but producing an inferior quality of charcoal. In this case, the gases coming from the condensers are burnt to d heat the retorts. The volatile matters condensed contain tar, pyroligneous acid, naphtha,

Fig. 3.-Charcoal Kiln; vertical section. wood spirits, acetic acid, and ammonia salts, and are often of more value than the charcoal obtained.

Charcoal is very light because of the porous structure, but its density in powder is 14 to 2. Light woods give the lightest charcoal. The chemical composition is 90 to 95 per cent of carbon and 5 to 10 of ash, when fresh, but it can absorb 10 to 20 per cent of moisture on standing in the air. Practical use has shown that an equal volume of hard charcoal produces a greater heat than soft coal, or, that charcoal is equal to about 14 times its volume of soft coal in heating power; also that it is 3 to 4 times that of an equal weight of wood. In evaporative effect, charcoal will turn into steam 8 to 12 times its own weight of water.

When freshly burned and finely powdered, it is used to relieve accumulations of gas in the stomach and to correct the odor arising from offensive wounds, being incorporated in poultices or placed in small bags which are loosely packed around the wound.

In the powdered state it is used for the manufacture of filters. It absorbs gases and coloring matter, and is used for the purification of alcoholic liquors, and as a disinfectant.

Charcot, JEAN MARTIN, 1825-1893. French physician, writer and investigator of nervous diseases, hypnotism, metallopathy and hysterical diseases.

Chardin, SIR JOHN, 1643-1713.

French traveler, resident

in London from 1681. Persia and the E. Indies, 1686-1711. Chareæ. Order of Characea.

Chares. Greek sculptor of the Rhodian Colossus, ab. 300 B.C. Chares. Greek historical writer, from Mytilene; employed by Alexander ab. 320 B.C. Fragments of his book remain.

Charge. (1) Obligation put upon property or a person, as by a testator upon land which he wills, or upon a devisee. (2) Accusation of wrong-doing: in some jurisdictions confined to a formal, legal accusation by complaint, or indictment. (3) Instructions by a judge to a jury as to the rules of law which should govern them in deciding a case.

Charge. Amount of explosive compound required to produce the intended effect in military mining. The charge coefficient is a constant determined for each kind of explosive by experiment. It is obtained by dividing the weight of the charge which produces a maximum crater by the square of the radius of explosion.

Chargé d'Affaires. Diplomatist subordinate to an ambassador, and sometimes taking his place.

Chariot. Ancient two-wheeled, poled vehicle, curved in front and open behind, and with a rail or dashboard of corresponding shape. It was adapted for standing; drawn by two or more horses. The only surviving example is that found in a Theban tomb ab. 1400 B C., and now in Florence, but pictures of such vehicles are common in Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman reliefs and paintings. There is also a marble chariot and pair in the Vatican. They were used mainly for war and for racing. The Celtic nations used them armed with scythes.

See BIGA.

Charities, PUBLIC. Many of the States have Boards of Charities, who have charge of the State hospitals and who also recommend the State contributions to incorporated charities. Counties, cities, etc., also have commissioners of charity, who have charge of public hospitals and the poor-houses, and who also distribute aid to needy persons.

Charity. Gift to a general public use. which extends to the poor as well as to the rich. It will be sustained and pro

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tected by the courts if consistent with local laws, provided it is specific and the intention of the donor can be effectuated. Charity. Love for mankind or individuals, as it determines the will toward benefiting them.

Charity Organization Society. This form of charity was inaugurated in London in 1869, and has extended over Great Britain and the U. S. Its object is to improve the condition of the poor, by investigation of the cases, suppressing professional begging, and securing co-operation among the charitable organizations and individuals.

Charity, SISTERS OF. Order founded 1629 by Vincent de Paul and Mme. Legras; confirmed by the pope 1668; devoted to benevolent works, and universally esteemed.

Charivari. Noisy and derisive demonstration common in France in past ages, usually against widows who remarried; surviving in the U. S. as "Callithumpian serenade," "shiveree" or "skimmelton."

Charlemagne, or CHARLES THE GREAT, 742-814. Son of Pepin the Short; ruler of the Franks from 772, founder of the Holy Roman Empire. He waged incessant wars with Saracens, Saxons and Lombards, promoted religion, learning, agriculture, commerce and the arts, and was crowned at Rome Dec. 25, 800. His empire extended from the Ebro to the Elbe; was securely founded, valiantly defended, and sagaciously governed; it aimed to fuse the Latin and Teutonic elements of w. Europe by aid of the Church.

Charleroi. Town of Belgium, besieged by the Prince of range 1672 and 1677; taken by the French 1693 and 1794. Pop., 1891, 22,551. See Many battles were fought near it. FLEURUS.

Charles I. (STUART), 1600-1649. King of England 1625; son of James I. His exalted views of the royal prerogative involved him in a contest with Parliament; his arbitrary taxation, religious persecution, and constant duplicity, caused civil war; he was defeated, tried and beheaded as a "tyrant, traitor and

murderer" by the Independents, who through the army had gained supremacy. His private virtues were obscured by his public vices; he was the victim of sincere, incorrigible, and fanatical devotion to theories which, largely by his means, were proved untenable.

Charles II. (STUART), 1630-1685. King of England 1660: son of Charles I.; in exile 1645; crowned in Scotland 1651; defeated by Cromwell at Dunbar and Worcester; restored 1660. He displayed, with more prudence, the absolutist tendencies of his family; truckled to France; and died in the R. C. faith. His court was notoriously dissolute.