cities as well as to children in small towns and rural areas who could enjoy the blessings of home influences up to 14. Dr. Reiman, the director of education for Berlin, adopted the suggestion and the Begabtenschule was established in 1917 for the admission of exceptional and studious pupils who have completed the first seven years of the elementary school course. The work of the Begabtenschule begins with that of Untertertia of a secondary school; during the first year the pupils are under probation and, if they fail to meet the standards, may be discharged, that is, at the age at which they would ordinarily have reached the close of the compulsory attendance period. After two years, that is after Untersekunda, a choice is open between the course of a gymnasium or of a realgymnasium. The schools do not grant the privilege of one year military service, but after six years lead to the maturity certificate which admits to the university. The Begabtenschule is open to able pupils of all classes; fees are remitted for poor pupils, and books and, in case of need, maintenance grants up to 300M ($75) a year are granted. The pupils must be recommended by their schools and are selected on the basis of psychological intelligence tests. The first tests were conducted by W. Moede and C. Piorkowski, psychologists who had met with success in selecting motor transport drivers for the army by tests which were used in all sections of this branch of the service. This selection is based on tests of attention and concentration, memory, combinations, wealth of ideas, judgment, attention, and observation. The authors of these tests declare that "reviewing the precise results of the analytical and systematic tests, the professional psychologist can not refuse to accept the responsibility for his decisions based on good scientific principles." Dr. Reimann plans to test pupils with artistic or technical bent and select them at 13 or 14 for higher trade schools to train as painters, jewelers, designers, embroiderers, cabinetmakers, lithographers, and other crafts. Dr. Rebhuhn has prepared an observation sheet which was presented by the Association for Exact Pedagogy to the city school board to be used by teachers as soon as pupils commence to show marked ability and to serve as a record from the second year up.

A similar plan was inaugurated at Leipzig for boys, and provision will be made for girls. Special classes were established at a Reform School and an Oberrealschule, closely coordinated with the elementary schools. The course begins in Untertertia with intensive study of French for three quarters of a year, when English or Latin is taken up. After another year the pupils are ready to take their place in the normal class of the school (Untersekunda). Tuition, books, and maintenance allowances are granted in case of need. Since the number of selected pupils is restricted to 20 each year, they are the very exceptional only (hervorragend Begabten). In order not to flood the academic and professional careers similar experiments will

be attempted in other schools, e. g., school of commerce, technical school, and trade schools.

A somewhat different plan has been adopted at Hamburg, where it was originally intended to establish a transition or special class to coordinate the elementary secondary schools. In place of this, owing to the insistence of the teachers and the House of Burgesses, a new type of school is organized that avoids such half measures. At 10 years of age; that is, on completing the fourth school year, pupils are specially selected for the new schools, of which 22 have been established (14 for boys and 8 for girls), to provide either a fouryear German course or a five-year course with foreign languages. These schools are similar to the Prussian middle schools and carry the privilege of admission to certain higher trade schools and to the State examination for the one-year military privilege. The pupil who completes the course of such schools can by way of the Oberrealschule or the Realgymnasium pass on to the universities.

The selection of the gifted pupils is based partly on the psychological observations by the teachers and psycholocical tests by an expert, for both of which Dr. W. Stern, of the Psychological Institute, is responsible. The psychological observations are recorded in a specially prepared folder indicating the home conditions and school record of the pupil, his adaptability, attentiveness, susceptibility to fatigue, powers of observation and comprehension, memory, imagination, thought, language, industry, disposition and will power, special - interests, and abilities. The psychological tests include the logical arrangements of ideas, explanation of concepts, completion test, building of sentence on the basis of keywords, the derivation of the moral of a story, the discovery of logical absurdities, the finding of a legend for a series of pictures, and test of attentiveness. Stern claims that the cooperation of the teachers makes the Hamburg system superior to the Berlin plan of selecting on the basis of tests alone; it should also be mentioned that the selection in Hamburg is under the supervision of a committee of the superintendent, inspectors, principals, teachers, and psychologists. For pupils who develop at a later stage than those for whom these arrangements are made transition classes have been established in two Realschulen in which after one year they can pass on to the last year of the school and qualify for the one-year military privilege.

Breslau has established special classes for boys and girls of great ability (Hochbegabten) selected at about the age of 12 by a psychological expert on the basis of intelligence tests similar to those used in Hamburg. Pupils who succeed in these schools will be encouraged by the city to proceed along suitable lines. The city will look after the education of selected pupils, who could thus be under the observa

tion of the psychologist until they pass into their chosen vocati Facilities have been instituted in Charlottenburg to enable gift pupils to advance more rapidly in the elementary schools and co plete the work of a middle school. At Frankfort gifted pupils, leaving the elementary schools, may be prepared in one year to ent Untersekunda of an Oberrealschule, and in four years to attain t Reifezeugnis. The Mannheim system is already well known in th country.1

The experiment is thus confined to the larger towns, and complain are already heard that the state should take over the further develop ment of such plans to bring them within the reach of all. In th meantime critics even of this precipitate of the more ambitious an more democratic movement for the Einheitsschule are not wanting There are those who express concern lest the gifted pupils becom spoilt and conceited; that selection in itself would set up class distinc tions; that school ability is not necessarily a guarantee of ability in after life; that pupils should not be selected on the basis of schoo marks, but on the basis of character, pronounced bent, and mora force. Further, the plans involve the danger of robbing the lower classes of their intelligent members, of depriving industry of its abler workmen, and of overcrowding academic and professional careers. Finally, faute de mieux, psychological tests are not yet sufficiently developed to serve as a basis of sound and scientific diagnosis, and are inadequate until they have found a more extensive place in the schools. It is clear that the mind of the German reactionary follows the same kind of logic in domestic as in foreign affairs.

SECONDARY EDUCATION.'

The movement for the common school, in some of its aspects, involved the reconstruction of the secondary school or at least the organization of a new type based entirely on a purely nationalistic foundation and open to all without distinction. This agitation was reenforced from another direction. The successes at the front were felt to be due to the excellent technical preparation given in some schools and the continued collaboration of the leaders in the field of the applied sciences. At the same time the megalomania of the early period manifested itself not merely in a feeling of physical superiority but in a sense of moral and intellectual self-sufficiency that needed no reenforcement from external sources. There was still a third point from which the traditional curricula were sub

1 Seo Auxiliary Schools of Germany. United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1907, No. 3.

2 See especially Friedel, V. H. The German School as a War Nursery. London, 1918. This is a translation of a French work carefully analyzing German thought on education as it appeared in the daily press.

jected to criticism-their failure to give a real preparation for the needs of modern life. The classical gymnasium in particular was attacked as an anachronism to be swept away as soon as possible and to be replaced by a genuine German nationalistic school adapted to the needs of to-day. To devote time to subjects that do not "function" or pay is a gross mistake. The schools should teach things and not words, realities and not tradition. Business men, practical politicians, and nationalistic educators found themselves united in a campaign to secure a school that would bring up German citizens in a pure German way and that would make the German civic spirit the core of the curriculum.

The charge is made that the so-called reforms resulting from the Emperor's conferences in 1890 and 1900 did not result in a modification of the gymnasium, where Latin and Greek still form the core of the curriculum with an emphasis on the grammatical and philological elements. The pseudo-humanistic ideal of teaching nothing that is directly useful for life still animates such schools, which continue as ever to be the homes of conservatism. "Deutschtum," German Kultur, must be the center around which secondary school studies should revolve. The classics may have been the roots of German Kultur, but Germany now possesses the fruit and flower in her own. culture and that alone. So far as antiquities are concerned, a knowledge of them can in these days be readily obtained through photographs, reproductions and models, and translations without the waste of time involved in studying grammar and rules. As for the disciplinary value of such studies, much better results can be obtained from mathematics.

The same attitude was manifested on the question of the study of modern foreign languages, although the material loss that might be involved in their total abandonment made the discussion of the subject a little more wary. It was argued that, since the enemy had evidently not taken the trouble to understand Germany, it was waste of time for Germans to attempt to study their languages. Statistically it was proved that next to the English language German was the vernacular of the world and after the war English would inevitably be ousted. It was even proposed, and a motion to this effect in the Prussian Upper House met with the support of all the uni-. versity representatives, that the languages of Germany's eastern allies should be introduced into the schools. Flemish was added to the list subsequently. The more cautious were not so ready to see English and French ousted, and, while admitting that Germany could gain nothing culturally from the enemy languages, suggested that commercially it might still be found profitable to retain English and add Russian and Spanish as the languages necessary for Germany's future commercial development. The one aim of the schools to-day

should not be formal training but an education for life founded moral idealism; there must be, as the Emperor had urged in 1890 a 1900, "a more decided nationalization of secondary education " develop citizens of a German state.

The blatancy of these claims was not allowed to pass unchalleng The advocates of the classics protested strongly. Did the oppone wish to make Americans of the youth of the country "to dry their dreams, and to turn boys of 15 into makers of machinery, in dentists, or into surgeons"? The German moral and intellectu forces of which all were proud were founded, it was claimed, on t ancient cultures. The particular character of German culture w derived from the cult of the classics. One secondary schoolmast sums up the arguments of the classicists in the statement that "Thr persons have become one in us, the Greek, the Christian, and t German"-hence each must have its place in the development youth. Nor were there lacking students of modern foreign lan guages to insist on their retention, but even here it was suggeste that such languages and literatures be studied only in so far a they can contribute toward a clearer comprehension of German national culture. The attitude of the ministry of education on thi subject is indicated in an instruction of March 20, 1915, which per mitted the employment in secondary schools of Germans expelled from France and England to teach the languages of these countries even if they did not possess the prescribed qualifications or previous teaching experience.

It is obvious that no matter what the opinion on any subject might be, all who entered into the discussion of educational values were unanimous in accepting the nationalistic aim. This aim was stimu lated by the Government in various ways, direct and indirect. Teachers were urged immediately on the outbreak of the war to turn the attention of their students to the study of the war events and patriotic endeavor. The ministry of war with the support of the ministry of education and other ministries interested in education urged the organization in schools and elsewhere of battalions and companies of boys of 15 or 16 (Jugendcompagnien, Jungmannen, Jungmannschaften) for physical training and instruction as a preparation for military training. Militarism in these organizations was at first disavowed, but it began progressively to enter and by 1917 no secret was made of their primary purpose.1

The direct method for the inculcation of patriotism, national pride, and devotion to the dynasty was adopted by the ministry of education when on September 2, 1915, it issued its "New Organization of the History Syllabus in Higher Schools of Prussia." It appeared that the history syllabus for the secondary schools had

1 See Friedel, op. cit., Chap. II.