and every action, and nothing is too triv- | varying and somewhat uncertain success. ial which might not be ennobled, purified, and beautified by its spirit. Jesse Williams, a dairyman, living near Rome, in Oneida County, had achieved a And how much good-will do we show reputation for making cheese of the best towards men in our ordinary judgments quality, and when, in 1851, one of his sons passed on their actions, their persons? was married and went to live on another If for one six months we would all bridle dairy-farm in the neighbourhood, Mr. Wilthat unruly member of ours, the tongue, liams endeavoured to contract for the sale refrain from lying and slandering, evil of cheese made by his son at the enhanced speaking, and dark suspicion, we might price paid for his own products. He recthen have a better idea of what the king- ognized the fact that to secure this the dom of heaven would be like than we cheese must be as good as his own, and have now. As things are, we are no bet- he determined, after some consideration, ter in spirit than a pack of snarling wolves to have the milk from his son's dairy fighting and rending each other for prey brought to his own place, there to be and supremacy, in no respect like broth- manufactured into cheese. This was the ers acting in concert and with good-will origin of associated dairying, and for three for the welfare of all alike. If there are years Mr. Williams and those who took two ways of looking at character and ac- their milk to him were the only ones who tion-and there always are two ways profited by a system that secured uniformwe take the worse, and assume the evil ity in the product, the concentration of we do not know. It would seem to most skill, and a great reduction in the cost of of us as weak and childish ignorance of labour and supplies. But the success of life to believe in the simplicity of virtue, the system once assured, the growth was touching men and their motives; and we quite rapid, and in 1866 there were more call him who is most profoundly steeped than 500 cheese "factories" in operation in cynicism and distrust the one who in the state of New York. Cheese-makknows mankind and society the most thor-ing, once monopolized by the rich counoughly, and whose learning has been of the truest kind. "Virtue itself 'scapes not calumnious strokes," and the unknown is always the reviled, if also in another sense the "magnificent." We say more in dispraise of each other than we can say in praise, and the majority vote for suspicion of their brethren, known or unknown, rather than for trust and faith. If it is silly to be all "gush" and romantic confidence, to take all men at their own valuation, and to have neither guard nor caution over our lives and possessions, it is infinitely illiberal, not to say unchristian, to think evil as of course, and to let the balance of our judgment incline ever to the side of condemnation. ties of Central New York, has since then spread to other parts of the state, and the factory system is now adopted in some degree in Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, and other Western States, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Massachusetts, Maine, and Canada, and has even spread to England and Russia. In 1873 Canada manufactured 20,000,000 pounds of cheese by the American method. The scheme of the Oneida farmer of 1851 to secure uniformity in the products of two dairies has reproduced itself in several thousand establishments, employing an estimated capital of twenty-five millions of dollars, and producing each year one hundred and fifty millions of dollars' worth of the manufactured article. The receipts at New York from the interior amounted in 1863 to 281,318 boxes of cheese, in 1874 to 2,204,493 boxes. The exports from New York in 1863 were 38,577,357 pounds, in 1874 they were 96,834,691 pounds. This THE factory system of making butter return will give some idea of the rapid and cheese, an industry of great and grow-growth of the industry, and of its great ing commercial importance, and the history importance to the commerce of the counof which is full of interesting and useful try. A committee of the New York Butlessons, has grown up in this country within the last quarter of a century from small beginnings. Prior to 1851 Herkimer and Oneida Counties, in central New York, had become somewhat famous for their cheese products, their dairies being then managed by individual owners with From The Philadelphia Ledger. CHEESE-FACTORIES IN AMERICA. ter and Cheese Exchange estimates the annual product of butter in the country at 1,440,000,000 pounds, of which 53,333,333 pounds are exported. These statistics of the trade derive their chief interest from the fact that the enormous business they represent has grown up from the earnest efforts of a single man to make in large required by the ever-increasing demands quantities a good article, which he was of the press. Though inferior to rags in already making in small quantities. If the manufacture of the article, esparto is he had resorted to trickery and decep- excellent as an auxiliary, and the possition he might have achieved a tempo- bility of procuring it has been a consolarary success, but he could never have tion to paper-makers. Alas! there now laid the foundations of such a great indus- comes a pinch. The demand for esparto try with any other corner-stone than that has been the death of it. We have all of honesty. A very full and readable de- heard of that infatuated proceeding, fascription of the processes of making but- miliarly known as "killing the goose that ter and cheese is published in the Novem- laid the golden eggs." The Spaniards ber number of Harper's Monthly Maga- who had the supply of esparto have killed zine. Of these we can only say that they their "goose." Instead of cutting their have been the subject of study by chem- esparto with scythes, so as to leave it to ists and practical dairymen of the highest grow a fresh crop, they have habitually culture, and that, although the latter know pulled it up by the roots, and according to how to make good cheese, neither they last accounts, whole districts of country nor the chemists understand precisely how were desolate. The esparto was gone. it is done. One hundred parts of milk are So much for reckless mismanagement. made up of about eighty-seven and one- A great source of traffic is dried up, or half parts of water, three and one-half very nearly so. parts of butter, three and one-eighth parts We need not waste words on the folly of caseine or pure curd, five and one- committed by Spantsh esparto growers and eighth parts of sugar, and less than one collectors. They are deaf to remonstrance, part of mineral matter. In cheese-making and past pity or hope of improvement. the design is to harden the caseine or Leaving them to their wretched poverty curd, and to do it in such a way as to im- and ruin, the question we have to consider prison globules of butter-oil in the curd. is how we are to find a due supply of maTo coagulate the milk the cheese-maker terials for the paper-manufacturer. The pours a solution of rennet into the milk, mountain plateaux of Africa, as we underand then begins the operation he does stand, would yield a good supply of esnot understand the "digestion" of the parto, but it is of inferior quality, and milk. The curing of the cheese is re- much cost and trouble would be incurred garded as a further process of digestion. in bringing it to any sea-port. AccordCheese-factories, as they are now built, ingly, it has to be given up, and we must are great buildings supplied with steam- think of something else. In contemplapower and steam-heating apparatus, and tion of the exigency, Mr. Thomas Routare altogether unlike the dairies of a quar-ledge, of Sunderland, has been seriously ter of a century ago. The cheese-maker considering the subject of cheap substi is an educated workman; his associates, tutes for esparto, and has alighted on what the dairymen, are scarcely inferior in he thinks will answer the purpose. The knowledge, and it is said that the treasurer article is bamboo. In a pamphlet entitled of a "factory association," himself a dairy-"Bamboo, considered as a Paper-making man, must attain such mathematical accu- Material ” (London and New York: E. and racy as to be able to demonstrate that it took 9.746 pounds of milk to make a pound of cheese, and that he who delivered a pound of milk to the factory is entitled therefore to 1.274 cents, at the then ruling price of cheese. From Chambers' Journal. A NEW PAPER-MAKING MATERIAL. IT is perhaps not generally known that but for the large importation of esparto, a species of tough grass, from Spain, to be used in paper-making, great difficulty would long since have existed in producing the enormous quantity of paper now F. N. Spon), he has just made known the result of his investigations and experiments. Fortunately for the paper-trade, he says, and its supply of materials in the future, two raw fibrous substances exist, to one of which his pamphlet is chiefly devoted. From time immemorial, several varieties of fine paper have been made from bamboo in China and Japan, and this induced Mr. Routledge to enter upon some experiments to see if it could not be advantageously utilized, although it had previously been tried with results which, commercially speaking, were not a success. Mr. Routledge believes that, with his new system of treatment, bamboo will prove to be as superior to esparto in every respect, as soaked down and bleached, in order to fit it for making paper, either by itself or as a blend with other materials. It may here be mentioned that the brochure of which we are speaking is printed on paper made by the author from bamboo. To turn Mr. Routledge's invention to practical account, it will of course be necessary to form plantations of bamboo in those countries where it flourishes and grows untended, with almost inconceivable rapidity; and, further, to erect there the works and machinery requisite for the manufacture of the paper-stock just described, because, owing to its bulk, and the consequent cost of carriage, it will never pay to bring bamboo to this country in any other form. esparto was found to be superior to straw, | kept for an indefinite length of time withand he has accordingly patented his in- out injury; and when received by the vention. The following is a brief sketch paper-manufacturer, it has only to be of the way in which he proposes to deal with bamboo for the manufacture of fibrous paper-stock: "First and foremost, it is essential to operate on the stems of the plant when young, and preferably when fresh cut. Brought to a factory in this condition, the stems are passed through heavy crushing rolls, in order to split and flatten them, and at the same time crush the nodes. The stems are then passed through a second series of rolls, which are channelled, or grooved, in order further to split or partially divide them longitudinally into strips or ribbons; these being cut transversely into convenient length by a guillotine-knife or shears, are delivered by a carrier, or automatic feeder, direct to the boiling-pans. Both the boiling and washing processes ordinarily in vogue for producing half-stuff or semi-pulp, Mr. Routledge conducts in a battery, or series of vessels connected together by pipes or channels, furnished with valves or cocks, so that communication between the vessels may be maintained, disconnected, and regulated as desired, in such manner that the vessels being methodically charged in succession, the heated lyes (composed of caustic alkali) can be conducted from vessel to vessel. The lyes are thus used again and again (each successive change or charge of lye carrying forward the extractive matters it has dissolved from the fibre with which it has been in contact) until exhausted or neutralized (when they are discharged), fresh lyes being methodically and successively supplied, until by degrees the extractive matters combined with the fibre have been rendered sufficiently soluble, when hot water for washing or rinsing is, in the same continuous manner, run from vessel to vessel, until the extractive matters rendered soluble by the previous alkaline baths have been carried forward and discharged, leaving the residuary fibre sufficiently cleansed. A final cooling-water is run on and through the fibre, which is then drained, and the contents of the vessel are placed in a press, in order to abstract as much of the remaining moisture as possible. The dry or semi-dry fibre is then submitted to the action of a "willow" or "devil," by means of which it is opened or "teased” out, and converted readily into a tow-like condition, when it is dried by a current of heated air, induced by a fan-blast, and finally baled up for storage or transport. In this condition of paper-stock it may be The second material which, in Mr. Routledge's opinion, fulfils the main conditions demanded by a paper-manufacturer, is "megasse," or "begasse," the fibrous residue of the sugarcane after it has been crushed to extract the juice. This, when "properly prepared, affords a strong, nervous fibre, or fibrous stock, which bleaches well, and possesses all the characteristics of a first-class paper-making material." For obvious reasons, megasse would also have to be "converted into a fibrous stock at or near the sugar-factory where it is produced, then dried, and put up in hydraulic-pressed bales for economical transport." At present, megasse is only made use of as fuel in the sugar-factories and in some countries as manure. "As its value, thus considered, is very low," Mr. Routledge thinks that "factories established in connection with existing sugar-mills for the manufacture of paper-stock, where sufficient quantities of so bulky a material could be concentrated, and where other favourable conditions exist (of which an abundant supply of water is an essential), would yield a large profit to the planter or sugar-manufacturer;" indeed, he has "made both paper-stock and paper of good quality from megasse, and determined the profitable nature of such a manufacture beyond dispute." It may be interesting to mention here that bamboo and megasse yield sixty and forty per cent. of fibre respectively. As Mr. Routledge alludes to it in commenting on the present position of the paper-trade in relation to the supply of raw material, we shall perhaps be pardoned for adding a few words with regard to the attempt which has been made to utilize wood as a material for paper-manu- | warmed to the temperature of the body facture, but which has not turned out well. before reaching the lungs; but if he takes Wood has been tried in two different in air between the lips and through the forms, the one mechanically, and the mouth, the cold air comes in contact with other chemically prepared. In the former the delicate lining membrane of the throat case, pieces of wood, as cut from the tree, and lungs, and gives rise to a local chill, are reduced, by means of a grindstone, to frequently ending in inflammation. Many pulp, or to the condition of flour; this persons, without knowing the reason why pulp or flour, however, contains but a they are benefited, wear respirators over small amount of "fibre, and that fibre pos- their mouth in winter, if they happen to sesses very little felting property, an es- go out of doors. By doing this they disential for a good sheet of paper;" so minish the amount of air which enters that it can only be used as, in point of between the lips, and virtually compel fact, a kind of adulterant in the manufac-themselves to breathe through the nostril.s ture of the commonest papers. Of wood chemically prepared, Mr. Routledge remarks that it is "costly in production, as it is only possible to reduce it into pulp by boiling under very high pressure with very strong caustic_alkali; several mills established both in England and Scotland to carry out this manufacture, have abandoned it, and such pulp as is now used in the trade is derived exclusively from the countries where the wood is grown. The pulp thus produced, although somewhat hard and harsh, if the wood be carefully selected and properly prepared, will, blended with other material, produce a fair quality of paper." Wood-pulp, thus chemically prepared, sells (unbleached) at from £24 to £25 per ton, but is never likely to be used to any considerable ex tent. From Public Health. HOW TO BREATHE PROPERLY. MOST people breathe properly, often more by accident or instinct than by design; but, on the other hand, hundreds of thousands do not breathe properly, while many thousands at this present moment are suffering from more or less severe affections of the lungs or throat, owing to a faulty mode of respiration-in other words, because they breathe through the mouth instead of through the nostrils. The mouth has its own functions to perform in connection with eating, drinking, and speaking; and the nostrils have theirs, viz., smelling and breathing. In summertime the error of respiring through the mouth is not so evident as at the present season, when it is undoubtedly fraught with danger to the person who commits this mistake. If any one breathes through the natural channel, the nostrils, the air passing over the mucous membrane lining the various chambers of the nose becomes But they could attain just the same result by keeping the lips closed, a habit which is easily acquired, and conduces to the proper and natural way of breathing. We believe that if people would only adopt this simple habit—in other words, if they would take for their rule in breathing, "Shut your mouth!" there would be an immense diminution in the two classes of affections, viz., those of the lungs and throat, which count many thousands of victims in this country in the course of a single year. Man is the only animal which has acquired the pernicious and often fatal habit of breathing through the mouth. It commences in childhood, and becomes confirmed in adult life, often engendering consumption, chronic bronchitis, relaxed sore throat, or some other disease of the lungs or throat which is set down, usually. to a different cause altogether. In concluding this short article, we venture to ask our readers to judge for themselves. When they step out in the morning into the fresh, but cold, air, let them try the difference of feeling aris ing from the two modes of breathing through the nostrils, and between the lips. In the former case they will find that they can breathe easily and freely, yet with comfort, while the fresh air, warmed to the temperature of the body by its contact with the nasal mucous membrane, is agreeable to the lungs; in the other case, if they draw in a few inspirations between the parted lips, the cold air, rushing in direct to the lungs, creates a feeling of coldness and discomfort, and an attack of coughing often comes on. From The Month. THE MONASTERIES AND THE POOR-LAWS. THE view has often been taken that the dissolution of the monasteries was the cause of pauperism and the poor-laws. SILENCED AND FORGOTTEN. A MONK'S SOLILOQUY. I DID not know that I had gifts: I knew This view has been opposed by Hallam | lieved poverty for the love of God," came and Froude with great warmth, so that a (Mr. Froude notwithstanding) the "worldly clear statement of the case is needful. harshness of a poor-law." I have now The monasteries in the Middle Ages, be- given the main points in the history of the sides being centres of religion, art, learn- great wrong done to the English small ing, and popular instruction, fulfilled two proprietors and agricultural labourers unimportant economical functions. One of der the Tudors, a wrong that preceded, these was that as land-owners they were accompanied, and was in close casual conthe best of "landlords," so that their ten- nection with outbreak and spread of herants had only to render moderate service esy. From James the First to the later or rents, were secure from inclosures and years of George the Second there was an evictions, and in times of distress were interval between two periods of colossal not in danger of being compelled to part robbery and cruel oppression. In the with their holdings, but would rather be seventeenth century there still remained helped to get over their difficulties. The a numerous class of small proprietors, and second economical function of monas- the yeomanry formed the strength of teries was to serve as houses of shelter for Cromwell's army. The labourers, also, travellers, as hospitals for the sick, and as were well off. The woes of the hapless centres of relief for the poor. These crowd that had been driven from their were their functions all through the Mid- homes in the sixteenth century had ended dle Ages; but in the time immediately pre- in the grave. ceding the Reformation the office of relieving the poor assumed a new character and importance. The monasteries were the one source of refuge for the multitudes who had been chased out of house and home by inclosures and "expropriations;" they enabled the victims of oppression to drag on their existence, and by this existence to be living witnesses to the sin of the rich inclosers. Hallam and Froude are, after all, not very far from the truth. The "blind eleemosynary spirit inculcated by the Romish Church" truly enough interfered with the operation of some of Malthus' "positive checks" to population-death by starvation or frost truly enough "encouraged" able-bodied beggars, by opening their hospitable doors to the ejected peasantry, whose homes and means of livelihood had been seized by the rich, and enabling them to be ablebodied and to beg a little longer. Naturally with the dissolution of the monasteries this resource failed, and, moreover, the number of impotent as well as of ablebodied poor was enormously increased by the fresh evictions of the peasantry from the lands that were seized from the Church. Cold and hunger went hand in hand with busy hangmen and foreign mercenaries to clear off the "surplus population," and free the rich plunderers from the odious presence of their victims. When this work was well advanced it became possible to deal with normal and ordinary poverty; and a poor-law, which before it would have been impossible to carry out, took the place of the old office of the monasteries. Instead of "God's poor," came parish paupers; instead of I know not how I ended; like a dream the "charity of the monasteries which re- | Did abbey, altar, choir, and concourse seem. That I must speak or perish; and I spake, mine. I said that He on whom Madonna smiled Shared all his birthright with each mother's child; That sin and weakness could not touch the soul Whose source was God, and God its only goal; I more ! said our Master's way must still be ours, a cross. Nor did I close the purgatorial door, Ah, God! how did the weary faces light, ground - Next day the sacristan a dagger found. |