circunstances may again restore, but the recovery of that which the nation itself out of fear of suffering, should abandon, would ever be difficult and doubtful. The nation then will suffer with patience, hoping for a brighter future, and confiding in the justice of its cause."

The reading of the proposed address was received with a storm of applause; and the Chamber, by an immense majority, voted for its immediate adoption. It was also adopted by the Upper House with an unanimous vote.

In the meantime Baron Vay resigned the Chancellorship of Hungary when the terms of the rescript became known at Pesth, and the Emperor appointed in his place Baron Forgach, a Hungarian of ancient family, and formerly Governor of Bohemia. Count Apponyi, the Royal Commissary and Judex Curia, also resigned his office for the same reason.

The result was that the Emperor dissolved the Hungarian Diet by a rescript, dated the 21st of August; and at a sitting of the Lower House or Chamber of Deputies at Vienna on the 30th of August, M. von Schmerling, the Prime Minister, assumed for himself and his colleagues the full responsibility of having advised the Emperor to take that step. He said the Ministers had to deliberate what circumstances rendered it necessary to dissolve the Hungarian Diet. Their deliberations, however, could result only in advice. To be effective their views must become the personal views of the Emperor. Not the Ministry, then, but His Majesty had decided

upon the dissolution of the Diet, according to the advice and judgment of his Ministers, and when he had become personally convinced of the importance of such a step. While establishing the Emperor's position as chief of the Executive, the Government in no way declined the responsibility of the advice they had given. He concluded thus: "I frankly deciare that the whole Ministry accepts the full responsibility of the advice which it gave to His Majesty in this weighty and complicated affair.”

The plan of opposition adopted by the Hungarians was that of passive resistance by the non-payment of taxes. In consequence of this General Count Pulffy was, in November, appointed Governor of Hungary, which was placed under a military dictatorship, and an autograph letter was addressed by the Emperor to Baron Forgach, in which he said:

The disloyalty of the Hungarian municipalities, and the resistance, bordering on insurrection, to the measures taken by the Government for the maintenance of public order, menace that order in a most dangerous manner, without the authorities being able to safely administer the penal law.

"The public duty and the will of the Emperor require that he should raise strong barriers against these excesses, and restore things to a state of order.

"As the convocation of the Hungarian Diet in a constitutional manner appears impracticable until order is re-established, all the existing authorities in the comitats, districts, and communes are abolished, and Count

Forgach is ordered to select persons to replace them, and to take care that the administration of public affairs in Hungary suffers no interruption.

"All persons charged with crimes against public order and safety shall be tried by military tribunals.

"In conclusion the Emperor expresses an earnest wish that he may soon be enabled, by the re establishment of public order, to proceed to the solution of the pending differences, and in future maintain entire the concessions he has granted to Hungary."

Soldiers were billeted on the inhabitants, and a system of oppression was resorted to which at last made their resolution give way. The taxes were sullenly paid, and no outbreak had occurred by the end of the year; although the feeling of discontent was stronger than ever, and Hungary was treated more like a conquered country than a dependency of the Austrian Empire.

RUSSIA. In Russia the very important step of emancipating the serfs throughout the whole of his vast dominions was, this year, taken by the Emperor Alexander after having been long in contemplation. The Manifesto or Decree, by which the social revolution was effected, was dated February 19, corresponding to March 3 of the new style, and was in the following terms:

By the grace of God, we, Alexander II., Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, King of Poland, Grand Duke of Finland, &c., to all our faithful subjects make known :-

and by the sacred right of inheritance to the throne of our ancestors, we took a vow in our innermost heart so to respond to the mission which is intrusted to us as to surround with our affection and our Imperial solicitude all our faithful subjects of every rank and of every condition, from the warrior who nobly bears arms for the defence of the country to the humble artisan devoted to the works of industry; from the official in the career of the high offices of the State to the labourer whose plough furrows the soil.

"In considering the various classes and conditions of which the State is composed we came to the conviction that the legislation of the empire having wisely provided for the organization of the upper and middle classes and having defined with precision their obligations, their rights, and their privileges, has not attained the same degree of efficiency as regards the peasants attached to the soil, thus designated because either from ancient laws or from custom they have been hereditarily subjected to the authority of the proprietors, on whom it was incumbent at the same time to provide for their welfare. The rights of the proprietors have been hitherto very extended and very imperfectly defined by the law, which has been supplied by tradition, custom, and the good pleasure of the proprietors. In the most favourable cases this state of things has established patriarchal relations founded upon a solicitude sincerely equitable and benevolent on the part of the proprietors, and on an affectionate submission on the part of the peasants; but in proportion as

the simplicity of morals diminished, as the diversity of the mutual relations became complicated, as the paternal character of the relations between the proprietors and the peasants became weakened, and, moreover, as the seigneurial authority fell sometimes into hands exclusively occupied with their personal interests, those bonds of mutual good-will slackened, and a wide opening was made for an arbitrary sway, which weighed upon the peasants, was unfavourable to their welfare, and made them indifferent to all progress under the conditions of their existence.

"These facts had already at tracted the notice of our predecessors of glorious memory, and they had taken measures for improving the conditions of the peasants; but among those measures some were not stringent enough, insomuch that they remained subordinate to the spontaneous initiative of such proprietors who showed themselves animated with liberal intentions; and others, called forth by peculiar circumstances, have been restricted to certain localities or simply adopted as an experiment. It was thus that Alexander I. published the regulation for the free cultivators, and that the late Emperor Nicholas, our beloved father, promulgated that one which concerns the peasants bound by contract. In the Western Governments regulations called inventaires' had fixed the territorial allotments due to the peasants, as well as the amount of their rent dues; but all these reforms have only been applied in a very restricted manner.

"We thus came to the conviction that the work of a serious

improvement of the condition of the peasants was a sacred inheritance bequeathed to us by our ancestors, a mission which, in the course of events, Divine Providence called upon us to fulfil.

We have commenced this work by an expression of our Imperial confidence towards the nobility of Russia, which has given us so many proofs of its devotion to the Throne, and of its constant readiness to make sacrifices for the welfare of the country.

"It is to the nobles themselves, conformable to their own wishes, that we have reserved the task of drawing up the propositions for the new organization of the peasants-propositions which make it incumbent upon them to limit their rights over the peasants, and to accept the onus of a reform which could not be accomplished without some material losses. Our confidence has not been deceived. We have seen the nobles assembled in committees in the districts, through the medium of their confidential agents, making the voluntary sacrifice of their rights as regards the personal servitude of the peasants. These committees, after having collected the necessary data, have formulated their propositions concerning the new organization of the peasants attached to the soil in their relations with the proprietors.

"These propositions having been found very diverse, as was to be expected from the nature of the question, they have been compared, collated, and reduced to a regular system, then rectified and completed in the superior committee instituted for that pur

pose; and these new dispositions thus formulated relative to the peasants and domestics of the proprietors have been examined in the Council of the Empire. "Having invoked the Divine assistance, we have resolved to carry this work into execution.

"In virtue of the new dispositions above mentioned, the peasants attached to the soil will be invested within a term fixed by the law with all the rights of free cultivators.

"The proprietors retaining their rights of property on all the land belonging to them, grant to the peasants for a fixed regulated rental the full enjoyment of their close; and, moreover, to assure their livelihood and to guarantee the fulfilment of their obligations towards the Government, the quantity of arable land is fixed by the said dispositions, as well as other rural appurtenances.

"But, in the enjoyment of these territorial allotments, the peasants are obliged, in return, to acquit the rentals fixed by the same dispositions to the profit of the proprietors. In this state, which must be a transitory one, the peasants shall be designated as 'temporarily bound.'

"At the same time, they are granted the right of purchasing their close, and, with the consent of the proprietors, they may acquire in full property the arable lands and other appurtenances which are allotted to them as a permanent holding. By the acquisition in full property of the quantity of land fixed, the peasants are free from their obligations towards the proprietors for land thus purchased, and they enter definitively into the conVOL. CIII.

dition of free peasants-landholders.

"By a special disposition concerning the domestics, a transitory state is fixed for them, adapted to their occupations and the exigencies of their position. On the expiration of a term of two years, dating from the day of the promulgation of these dispositions, they shall receive their full enfranchisement and some temporary immunities.

"It is according to these fundamental principles that the dispositions have been formulated which define the future organization of the peasants and of the domestics, which establish the order of the general administration of this class, and specify in all their details the rights given to the peasants and to the domestics, as well as the obligations imposed upon them towards the Government and towards the proprietors.

"Although these dispositions, general as well as local, and the special supplementary rules for some particular localities, for the lands of small proprietors, and for the peasants who work in the manufactories and establishments of the proprietors, have been, as far as was possible, adapted to economical necessities and local

customs, nevertheless, to preserve the existing state where it presents reciprocal advantages, we leave it to the proprietors to come to amicable terms with the peasants, and to conclude transactions relative to the extent of the territorial allotment and to the amount of rental to be fixed in consequence, observing, at the same time, the established rules to guarantee the inviolability of such agreements. "As the new organization, in [P]

consequence of the inevitable complexity of the changes which it necessitates, cannot be immediately put into execution, as a lapse of time is necessary, which cannot be less than two years or thereabouts; to avoid all misunderstanding and to protect public and private interests during this interval, the system actually existing on the properties of landowners will be maintained up to the moment when a new system shall have been instituted by the completion of the required preparatory measures.

"For which end, we have deemed it advisable to ordain

"1. To establish in each district a special Court for the question of the peasants; it will have to investigate the affairs of the rural communes established on the land of the lords of the soil.

"2. To appoint in each district justices of the peace to investigate on the spot all misunderstandings and disputes which may arise on the occasion of the introduction of the new regulation, and to form district assemblies with these justices of, the peace.

"3. To organize in the seigneurial properties communal administrations, and to this end to leave the rural communes in their actual composition, and to open in the large villages district administrations (provincial boards) by uniting the small communes under one of these district administrations.

"4. To formulate, verify, and confirm in each rural district or estate a charter of rules in which shall be enumerated, on the basis of the local Statute, the amount of land reserved to the peasants in permanent enjoyment, and the

extent of the charges which may be exacted from them for the benefit of the proprietor as well for the land as for other advantages granted by him.

5. To put these charters of rules into execution as they are gradually confirmed in each estate, and to introduce their definite execution within the term of two years, dating from the day of publication of the present manifesto.

"6. Up to the expiration of this term, the peasants and domestics are to remain in the same obedience towards their proprietors, and to fulfil their former obligations without scruple.

"7. The proprietors will continue to watch over the maintenance of order on their estates, with the right of jurisdiction and of police, until the organization of the districts and of the district tribunals has been effected.

"Aware of all the difficulties of the reform we have undertaken, we place above all things our confidence in the goodness of Divine Providence, who watches over the destinies of Russia.

"We also count upon the generous devotion of our faithful nobility, and we are happy to testify to that body the gratitude it has deserved from us, as well as from the country, for the disinterested support it has given to the accomplishment of our designs. Russia will not forget that the nobility, acting solely upon its respect for the dignity of man and its love for its neighbour, has spontaneously nounced rights given to it by serfdom actually abolished, and

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