or boards appointed by the government, | on the occurrence of a war, the efficient one for each province. The constitution military array of the Prussian monarchy of the Catholic church differs in different may be estimated as exceeding the number provinces. In the Rhenish provinces it is of 350,000 men, of all descriptions of arms. fixed by the concordat entered into be- Prussia has no navy.-Bordering, however, tween the French government and pope as the kingdom does on Russia, Austria, Pius VII. But in every part of the mo- and France, each of them maintaining a narchy, the crown has reserved to itself a standing army still more numerous than its control over the election of bishops and own, the Prussian government has steadily priests. In the entire kingdom, there aimed at the preservation of the peace of were, in 1837, 5740 ordained Protestant Europe. It has, since 1815, sought for no clergymen, and 140 assistant clergymen: farther aggrandizement of territory, and there were, at the same time, 3510 Catho- has been content to extend its influence lic priests, and 2033 vicars, chaplains, &c.; through the instrumentality of the Cusso that the proportion of Catholic clergy- toms' Union. Occupied of late years with men rather exceeded that of Protestants. the negotiations necessary for the formaThe incomes of the clergy of both sects tion and extension of this commercial mostly arise from peculiar endowments. | league, and with the improvement of the Generally, government does not guaranty internal interests of the country, as well the stipend either of Protestant or Catholic as, for a time, with an awkward eccleclergymen; but in many parishes, the siastical quarrel with the archbishop of clergy enjoy a public provision from the Cologne and other Roman Catholic dignistate. This is especially the case in the taries, and another, in consequence, with Rhenish provinces, in virtue of the con- the pope, the history of its proceedings has cordat already alluded to. Proselytism, offered but few events to fix the attention whether by force or by persuasion, is pro- of the general reader. Frederick William hibited by law; and all controversial ser- III., who enjoyed in a high degree the mons, or peculiar displays of religious zeal, respect and affection of his subjects, notwould certainly attract the notice, and withstanding his failure to realize the exincur the displeasure of the authorities. pectations held out to them of a represenWith the exception of the Rhine province tative constitution, died on the 7th of June and a portion of Westphalia, perhaps there 1840, and was succeeded by his eldest is in no country less of religious acrimony son, Frederick William IV. The new and contention than in Prussia.-The ques-reign began with the pardon of a number tion as to a provision for the poor has only of political refugees, and the appointment become of importance since the abolition to professorships and to high stations in of feudal vassalage, in 1810. Previously the administration of the government of to that epoch, they were provided for by several individuals distinguished for the their lords. At present, poor persons, or liberality" of their political sentiments. those unable to provide for themselves, But although formally reminded by the have a legal claim to support. But it is States of East Prussia, assembled at Körarely necessary to resort to compulsory nigsberg, September 7th 1840, of the proproceedings to enforce this claim, the mises made by his father, and again rereally necessitous being generally provided peatedly reminded of them, since then, for by voluntary subscriptions. There are from other parts of his dominions, espework-houses in most large towns. The cially the Rhenish province, the new king Prussian army is stated to have consisted, has as yet not moved in the matter, and in 1844, of 118,669 men, of whom 78,700 the government of Prussia still retains its were infantry, 23,907 cavalry, and 13,826 despotic, or nearly despotic form. How artillery. This force is so organized as to long this state of things will endure, it is admit, in the event of a war, of being difficult to conjecture. The opinion, howpromptly augmented to 217,720 men, of ever, seems to be prevalent very generally whom 138,650 will be infantry, 27,968 that the concessions demanded cannot be cavalry, and 45,000 artillery. This, too, much longer withheld. When the Prusdoes not comprehend the gens d'armes and sian government is spoken of as a despotthe invalids, who amount to upwards of ism in its outward form, it is proper to add 5000 men more. The landwehr, or mili- that, in reality, there is, perhaps, no Eurotia of the first class (see Militia), amount-pean (continental) government to which ed, also, in 1844, to 93,442 men, and, on that term can be with less propriety apthe war establishment, to 133,316 men. plied. For though the king be all-powerAnd as this portion of the landwehr is des- ful so long as his conduct is approved by tined to be necessarily called into activity the bulk of the people, he would, on the 66 502 PRUSSIA-PUSCHKIN. contrary, be quite powerless were he to lose their confidence and support. The king of Prussia has no extrinsic resources, or peculiar interests, on which to fall back in the event of his becoming unpopular. There is neither a powerful church, nor a powerful aristocracy, in Prussia: the army, too, is merely a portion of the citizens; and where every man is educated and every man a soldier, the acts of the government cannot, speaking generally, be other than the acts of the public. The following are the principal towns of the kingdom, with their population (exclusive of the military stationed in them) in 1837: Berlin. ...265,394 88,869 64,200 There he resided during a year or more, directing his attention to the improvement and embellishment of his property, and enjoying the society of a select number of friends,-men of genius and refinement,— whom he induced to visit him. When the Russians, in the winter of 1813, penetrated into the north of Germany, he joined their army with the rank of major. He distinguished himself on various occasions, and was promoted to the rank of a lieutenant-colonel. On the conclusion of peace, he felt himself once more at liberty to consult his own tastes; and, resigning his commission, he paid a visit to England, and then returned to Muskau to resume his former mode of life there. He made, however, occasional excursions to Berlin and Dresden. At the former place, in 1817, he rendered himself conspicuous by ascending with a balloon, of which ascent he published an account. In the same year he married a daughter of the prince of Hardenberg, who had been divorced from her first husband, and who was also, after a period of 8 years, divorced from her second husband. Subsequently to this, prince Pückler-Muskau once more indulg ed his passion for travelling. He passed the years 1828 and 1829 in England. Thence he proceeded to Ireland, and next to France. From the latter country he embarked for Algiers in 1835. In 1837, we find him in Egypt and in Greece, whence he did not return to his own country till PUBLICANS. The farmers of the public 1840. His winters have been since spent revenue at Rome were so called. They in Berlin, and his summers at Muskau.— formed two distinct classes; the farmers- Prince Pückler-Muskau is most extengeneral of the revenues, who were re-sively known by the account published garded as belonging to one of the most honourable grades of citizens,-and deputies, or publicans of an inferior caste, whose reputation was on a par with that of the most degraded portion of the community. Cologne (including Dentz). Königsberg Dantzick. Magdeburg.. 51.344 Aix-la-Chapelle. 38,878 Stettin (including Damm). 33,7-6 Posen... 32,456 Barmen. 28.975 Elberfeld. 26,776 19,763 PRUSSIC ACID. The antidotes for prussic acid, where it has been taken as a poison, are solution of chlorine, by which it is chemically decomposed, and ammonia, which combines with it, and acts as a stimulant. PÜCKLER-MUSKAU (Hermann Lewis Henry, prince of) was born at Muskau in Lusatia, October 30th 1785. After having been instructed for a time at a school under the charge of the Moravian brethren, he was placed by his friends in the "padagogium" of Halle. From 1800 to 1803 he studied jurisprudence at the university of Leipsic. Soon afterwards, he entered the Saxon army. Dissatisfied, however, with the monotony of a military life in time of peace, he retired from the service with the rank of captain of cavalry. He then employed several years in travelling through Austria, France, and Italy. In 1811, on the death of his father, he succeeded to the castle and estate of Muskau. by him of his travels in England, Ireland, &c., above mentioned, a work in which he has depicted the manners of the aristocracy and of fashionable life, with great freedom and sprightliness. Among his other literary productions, may be mentioned his "Tutti Frutti," a miscellany, containing observations made by the author during his wanderings in France and Germany, his reflections on various subjects, an account of his aëronautic excursion at Berlin, &c. The "Next to the Last (Vorletzten) Journey of Semilasso" describes his residence in Algiers. And the "Rambles of a young man" (Jugendwanderungen) relate his travels in France and Italy. PUSCHKIN (Alexander, count Mussin), a distinguished Russian poet, was born on the 26th of May 1799, and at 13 years of age was a pupil in the lyceum of Tsarkoselo, at which time he produced his first poem, entitled "Reminiscences of Tsar PUSCHKIN-QUEBEC. 503 koselo." The commendation which it re- of the emperor himself. In 1828, he acceived determined the future direction of companied General Paskéwich, as a vohis mind. His productions, consisting lunteer, in his march into Asiatic Turkey, mostly of odes and satires, were, for a time, visiting, in the course of the expedition, strongly impressed with liberal sentiments. Georgia, Armenia, and the neighbouring An ode to "Liberty" is said to have caused countries. After this, he scarcely ever his removal from St. Petersburg, where quitted St. Petersburg. Having been aphe had resided since he left the lyceum. pointed historiographer of the crown, it The emperor Alexander, however, who became the chief aim of his subsequent' was partial to him personally, appointed writings to defend and celebrate the hohim to an office in the southern part of the nour of his country. The last years of Russian empire, which afforded him the his life were particularly employed in colopportunity of visiting the Crimea, the lecting materials for an elaborate account Caucasus, and other portions of that ex- of the reign of Peter the Great.—He died, tensive region. On the accession of in February 1837, from a wound received Nicholas, he was once more allowed to in a duel with his brother-in-law, an offireside at St. Petersburg, or anywhere else cer of the imperial guards. - A splendid in Russia that he might think proper. It edition of his works, consisting, besides was also intimated to him, as an encourage his satires and odes, of some narrative ment to pursue his literary avocations, poems, a tragedy, and several novels, was that his writings should be thenceforth published, by order of the emperor Nichosubjected to no other censorship but that las, in 1837-38. QUATRE Q. UATREMERE (Étienne Marc), one of the most eminent oriental scholars of the present age, was born at Paris, July 12th 1782. Being placed in very narrow circumstances by the death of his father, in the year 1794, he applied himself at first to the study of the exact sciences, with the hope of gaining admission to the Polytechnic School. He was, however, soon induced to abandon this design; when he turned his attention to the study of the oriental languages. It was not long before he obtained an honourable rank among scholars, by his "Recherches critiques et historiques sur la langue et la littérature de l'Égypte." In 1809, he was appointed professor of Greek literature in the Faculty of Letters of Rouen. In 1811, he published "Mémoires géographiques et historiques sur l'Égypte et sur quelques contrees voisines," and in the following year a supplementary volume, under the title of "Observations sur quelques points de la géographie de l'Egypte." These productions opened to him the doors of the Institute. He was chosen a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres in 1815. Four years later, he was appointed professor of the Hebrew, Chaldaic, and Syriac languages, in the College | of France, and, in 1832, succeeded M. de Chezy in the professorship of the Persian language and literature, in the School of Oriental Living Languages.-M. Quatremère is one of the contributors to the 66 Collection orientale," in which he has published the first volume of "Reschid ed Dins' "History of the Mongols of Persia," accompanied by an excellent French translation and valuable notes. He has also translated from the Arabic the "History of the Mamelouk sultans of Egypt" of Makrizi, and the "Historical Prolegomena" of Ebn Khaldoun. And he has, besides, enriched the principal European journals devoted to oriental literature with a number of valuable articles; not to mention his communications, from time to time, to the memoirs of the Institute.-M. Quatremère is said to have collected the materials of a dictionary of the Arabic, Persian, and Turkish languages, on the plan of Stephens and Ducange; and to have in manuscript Syriac, Coptic, and Armenian lexicons. QUEBEC.* Population in 1842, 31,809. -The conveyance of emigrants to Quebec constitutes an important branch of the trade between Great Britain and Canada. In 14 years, ending with 1842, the number of persons of all descriptions who arrived in this city amounted to 366,181; of which number 96,324 were from England and Wales, 222,415 from Ireland, 42,424 from Scotland, and 4518 from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia and ports on the river St. Lawrence. Only 500 arrived from ports on the continent of Europe. This immense mass of emigrants proceed principally to Upper Canada, whence a con siderable portion of them find their way | into the United States.-The imports into Quebec have of late years been very much augmented. In 1839, 1175 ships, with an aggregate burden of 383,644 tons, arrived there. The St. Lawrence is seldom frozen over below the city; but the masses of floating ice, kept in constant agitation by the flux and reflux of the tide, render its navigation impracticable from the end of November, or beginning of December, to some time in the month of April. QUETELET (Lambert Adolphe) was born at Ghent, in the Netherlands, in February 1796, and received his education in the university of that city. Through the recommendation of the mathematician Garnier, whose personal acquaintance he had the good fortune to make, he was, at a comparatively early age, appointed professor of the mathematical and physical sciences in the Athenæum of Ghent. He next became the director of the observatory there, a post which he yet occupies. He is the author of various scientific papers that have appeared in the Memoirs of the Brussels Academy, of which learned association he is the perpetual secretary, or in the "Correspondance mathématique et physique," edited at first conjointly with Garnier, and subsequently by himself alone. But he has also published a number of popular works on science which are very meritorious in their way, and have passed through several editions. The works referred to are his "Astronomie populaire" and "Astronomie élémentaire," the "Résumé d'un cours de physique générale," his "Physique populaire de la chaleur," his "Instructions populaires sur le calcul des probabilités," &c. The attention of M. Quetelet has latterly been very much directed to statistical inquiries. These have been prosecuted in a philosophical spirit, and with a constant reference to utility in the conclusions to be arrived at. His statistical works are the following:"Recherches statistiques sur le royaume des Pays Bas;" "Recherches sur la loi de croissances de l'homme aux différents ages;" "Recherches sur le penchant au crime aux différents ages;" ;""Recherches sur la reproduction et la mortalité de l'homme aux différents ages;" and the most important of all, that entitled "Sur l'homme et le développement de ses facultés, ou essai de physique sociale" (2 vols., Paris, 1835).-M. Quetelet is at present editor of the "Annuaire" and the "Annales de l'observatoire" of Brussels. QUINET (Edgar) was born at Bourg, in the French department of the Ain, in February 1803. His father was a Frenchman and a Roman Catholic; his mother a native of Germany and a Protestant. He received an education preparatory to being admitted into the Polytechnic School. But his admission to it being postponed unexpectedly, on account of the extraordinary number of candidates who presented themselves, his friends procured for him at Paris an appointment (surnuméraire des finances) in the financial department of the government. The duties assigned him were of a nature far from being congenial with his tastes, and left him no leisure for the prosecution of literary pursuits. He accordingly resigned the appointment, and engaged in the study of the law, while at the same time occupying himself much with literature. Immediately after being admitted to the bar, he commenced his career as an author by the publication of a small work called the "Wandering Jew." His health having suffered from long-continued mental application, he travelled for the restoration of it, first to England, where he changed his intention of coming to the United States, and next to Germany, for the purpose of completing with advantage a translation into French of Herder's “Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit." At Heidelberg he remained for more than a year (1827-28), enjoying the advantage of daily intercourse with Creuzer and other eminent German scholars. Here, too, an earnest desire to visit the classic land of Greece was excited in him by the literary atmosphere in which he lived. He wrote, accordingly, to M. de Martignac, then at the head of the administration in France, suggesting to him the plan of a scientific expedition to the Morea. The expedition, as is well known, took effect; and M. Quinet was selected by the Institute to be one of its members. On his return to France, he published his work "De la Grèce moderne et de ses rapports avec l'antiquité." He visited Italy during the years 1830-31, to collect materials for a treatise on the fine arts which he projected, and then went once more to Germany, where he continued for several years, chiefly at Heidelberg. In 1839, he quitted that city to become a professor in the Faculty of Letters at Lyons; and towards the end of 1840, he was invited to Paris to fill the new chair of the Literature of the South of Europe, in the College of France. His inaugural lecture, the subject of which was the Revival of Letters and Italian civilization, was delivered in the beginning of 1842.-Besides the works already mentioned, M. Quinet QUINET-RADIATION. is the author of a "rapport" made to the French minister of the Interior "sur les épopées françaises du XIIe siècle" (1831); the "poem in prose" of "Ahasvérus" (1831); the " poems in verse" of "Napoléon" (1836), and “Prométhée" (1838); "L'Allemagne et l'Italie," a poetical narrative of his travels in those countries; &c. He has also contributed a great number of valuable and interesting articles to the "Revue des deux mondes." And very lately he has distinguished himself as one of the prominent champions of the University in its contest with the clergy or the "Jesuits," on the question of the liberty of instruction claimed by the latter. QUINTANA (Manuel Jose) was born at Madrid in 1772. He received his preparatory education in that capital, and then prosecuted his studies at Cordova and Salamanca. The profession which he had chosen for himself was that of the law; but he was diverted from the practice of it by the various public offices to which he was successively appointed. He took an enthusiastic part on the side of the Spanish patriots in their contest against Napoleon, for the establishment of their national independence; and, during its continuance, he drew up most of the proclamations and manifestos issued by the Cortes, wrote a number of patriotic songs, and, besides editing a literary journal, he contributed largely to a political one. For these services rendered by him to his country, when Ferdinand VII. resumed his absolute authority in 1814, Quintana was thrown into prison; whence he was only - 505 liberated by the revolution of the Isle of Leon, in 1820. He again filled different public offices, until the events of the year 1823 obliged him to consult his safety by retiring to his estate in Estremadura. In 1828, he received a formal permission from the government to return to Madrid. He was, in the following year, named to be one of the "proceres" of the kingdom and a member of the council of state; and, subsequently, he became a senator, and secretary of the senate. Quintana published a volume of lyrical poems in 1802. The best and most complete edition of his poems, however, appeared in 1825, under the title of "Poesias inclusas las patrióticas y las tragedias: El duque de Viseo y El Pelayo" (Madrid, 2 vols. 1821). As an editor, he has distinguished himself by the publication of the "Poesias selectas castellanas desde el tiempo de Juan de Mena hasta nuestros dias" (Madrid, 3 vols. 1808; 2d ed., much enlarged, 4 vols. 1830), accompanied by biographical and critical notices, and by the publication also of select specimens from the Spanish epic poets (2 vols. 1833). And besides being one of the most popular poets of his country, he has earned for himself, by the publication of his "Vidas de españoles célebres" (1st vol. 1807; 2d and 3d vols. 1830-33), the reputation of being one of her best prose writers. QUIROGA.* From 1830, with the exception only of a few months of the year 1836, when he held the appointment of Captain-General of Arragon, General Quiroga lived in retirement, till his death, which took place at St. Jago in 1841. R. RADIATION, bedien and all lumi- ant heat, are highly important. The la nous and heated bodies produce sensible effects at a distance; and these are of various kinds, although in the present state of science they are all referred to four distinct principles, which have received the names of the luminiferous, the calorific, the chemical, and the phosphorogenic radiations-1. The phenomena of the luminiferous radiation have been sufficiently described under the heads of Light, Optics, Polarization, &c., in the preceding volumes of this Encyclopædia; and the additions which have been made to this branch, since the publication of those volumes, are not of much popular interest.-2. The additions, however, which have been made to our knowledge of the calorific radiation, or, in other words, to the subject of radiVOL. XIV.-64 bours of Melloni, Forbes, and others, with the aid of the delicate thermo-electrical apparatus, have shown that there is as great a diversity in the rays of heat as in those of light. Bodies, at different temperatures, emit rays of heat possessing different physical properties, which are manifested by their different capacities of penetrating different substances. Thus, of 100 rays of heat from the flame of a lamp, 54 are transmitted through a plate of glass of a given thickness; while out of the same number of rays from copper heated to 732 degrees of Fahr., only 12 pass through the same glass; and from the same piece of metal heated to 212 degrees, not a single ray is transmitted. The heat from the sun principally consists of rays of the |