being at a distance from the seat of government, they were supposed to afford better opportunities for smuggling. The tree has been introduced into Sumatra, Mauritius, and other parts of the East, and attempts have also been made to introduce it into Cayenne and Trinidad; but the greater expense attending its cultivation in these places has hitherto prevented any reduction of the monopoly prices charged by the Dutch.-Nutmegs contain two oils; one a fixed oil, and the other volatile. Both of them are used for medical purposes.

NUTRIA, or NEUTRIA; the commercial name for the skins of the Myopotamus Bonariensis, the Coypou of Molina, an aqua

tic rodent little quadruped, inhabiting S. America, especially Chile, Buenos Ayres, and Tucuman. It is valued on account of its fur, which, like that of the beaver, is of two kinds, - the long ruddy hair, and the brownish ash-coloured fur at its base. The latter is now largely used in the hat manufacture.-The habits of the nutria or coypou are much like that of most of the other aquatic rodent animals. Its principal food, in a state of nature, is vegetable. It affects the neighbourhood of water, swims perfectly well, and burrows in the ground. It is easily domesticated, and its manners in captivity are very mild. The female brings forth from 5 to 7 at a time; and the young always accompany her.

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ing of the session of 1843, on M. Guizot, on account of his course in relation to the question of the right of search; and he has subsequently exerted all his efforts to overthrow the administration of the latter, - endeavouring, more especially, at every opportunity that offered, to render it suspected by the French people of a partiality to England.

OGDEN (Aaron) was born on the 3d of December 1756, at Elizabethtown in New Jersey. He graduated at Princeton college in 1773, and after leaving that institution was for a time an assistant teacher in a school in his native town, taught by Mr. Francis Barber. In the spring of 1777, the school was discontinued, both principal and assistant entering the army, the former as a major, and the latter as a captain. Throughout the revolutionary contest, Mr. Ogden served with distinction; and he was present at the battles of Brandywine, Monmouth, and Springfield, and at the siege of Yorktown. At the peace, he studied the law, and was in due season admitted to the bar. He rose rapidly in his new profession, and acquired an extensive practice. This, however, he did not hesitate to quit, when, on the prospect of a war with France in 1799, his country again required his military services. Until the army was disbanded, he held the appointments of a colonel of infantry and a deputy quarter-master-general. In 1800, he was appointed by the Legislature of New Jersey to be one of the electors of president and vice-president of the United States, and likewise one of the commissioners for adjusting the disputed boundary between that state and the state of New York. From 1801 to 1803, he was one of the senators from New Jersey in the Congress of the United States. He then returned to the practice of his profession, in which he continued to be employed down to the year 1812, when he was elected governor of New Jersey. During the war with Great Britain which was begun at this period, the president (Mr. Madison) tendered to him a commission as a major-general in the U. S. army; an appointment which he declined on the ground, that, being invested, by virtue of the office that he held, with the command of the militia of his state, he might, quite probably, be able to do more service to his fellow-citizens by remaining where he was, than by complying with the wishes of the president. In 1815, being no longer governor, and having become engaged in a speculation in steamboats, the success of which was interfered with by the ex

clusive privilege bestowed on Mr. Fulton to navigate with steam the waters comprehended within the limits of the state of New York, he directed all his energies to effect its repeal, on account of its alleged unconstitutionality. The argument which he delivered in support of a petition for this purpose, before the Legislature at Albany, though opposed by several eminent members of the New York bar, came very near overthrowing the monopoly against which he contended; the bill introduced, in accordance with his views, after passing the House of Assembly by a large majority, being rejected in the Senate only by a single vote. Subsequently to this occurrence, Governor Ogden lived very much in retirement, holding no public office, and appearing on public occasions merely as a spectator or auditor. He died on the 19th of August 1839, in the 83d year of his age, respected and honoured by all who knew him.

OGINSKI (Michael Casimir) passed the latter years of his life in Italy, at Florence, where he died in 1833. Besides his memoirs on Poland and the Poles, previously mentioned, he is the author of "Observations sur la Pologne et les Polonais, pour servir d'introduction aux Mémoires de Michel Oginski," published, with some additions, by Leonard Chodzko.

OHSSON (Ignace Mourdja d') was born at Constantinople, of an Armenian family, in 1740. He entered at an early age into the service of the Swedish legation in his native city, and was successively secretary, first interpreter of legation, and chargé d'affaires of the king of Sweden to the Ottoman Porte. His acquaintance with the Arabic and Turkish languages led him to conceive the plan of his great work, giving an account of the Turkish empire at the period when it was written. It was published at Paris, and in the French language, under the title of "Tableau général de l'empire Othoman," in two parts, one relating to the Mohamme dan religion and legislation, and the other containing the history of the empire (1787– 90, 2 vols. in fol.). A third volume was added by his son (1820) from the manuscripts left behind him by the author, and which contained the civil, political, criminal, and military codes of the Turks. The work possesses a high order of merit, and is distinguished by the elegance of the type and engravings, but is still incomplete, though the materials for continuing it are said not to be yet exhausted. M. d'Ohsson resided in France from the year 1784 till the progress of the revolution in

that country induced him to transfer his residence for a time to Constantinople, where he was favourably received by the Grand Seignior (Selim III.). On returning to France, he there published, in 1804, an introduction to his former work, entitled "Tableau historique de l'Orient" (2 vols., 8vo.). The author died in August 1807. - His son, the baron Constantine Mouradja d'Ohsson, minister of Sweden, first at the Hague (1816), and subsequently at Berlin (1834), and a member of the Asiatic Society of Paris, was born at Constantinople, about the year 1780. He has written the "Histoire des Mongols, depuis Tehinguis-Khan jusqu'à Timeer-Lane" (1824-2d ed. 1834-35, 4 vols.), and another work entitled "Des peuples du Caucase et des pays au nord de la mer Noire et de la mer Caspienne dans le Xe siècle, ou voyage d'Abou-el-Cassim" (1827), an imitation in some sort of the journey of Anacharsis into Greece, and as faithful to the truth as it is interesting.

OKEN.* This distinguished naturalist accepted, in 1833, an appointment to a professorship in the new university of Zurich, in Switzerland.-His last work is entitled "A general view of Natural History for all classes" (Allgemeine Naturgeschichte für alle Stände). Several volumes of it have been published, between the years 1833 and 1842.

OLBERS.* In the "Annuaire du Bureau des longitudes" for the year 1832, there is a dissertation by this eminent astronomer and physician, entitled "De l'influence de la lune sur les saisons et sur le corps humain." He had been already a long time a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris, when in 1829 he was chosen to be a foreign member of that learned body, in the room of Dr. Wollaston. He had previous to this, too, become an honorary or corresponding member of almost all the other scientific societies of Europe; and the monarchs of Denmark and Prussia had signified the sense which they entertained of his merits, by conferring upon him orders of knighthood. And in 1833, the Senate of Bremen, in the vicinity of which city he was born, and where he resided, decreed that his bust should be placed in the public library. -He died at Bremen, on the 2d of March 1840.

OLFACTORY NERVES; the pair of nerves which, proceeding from the brain, are distributed over the mucous membrane of the nose, and are subsidiary to the sense of smell.

OLIVER (Daniel) M. D., LL. D., was

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born at Marblehead, Mass., September 9th 1787. He was graduated at Harvard University, with high honours, in 1806, and, after taking his degree in Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1810, commenced practice at Salem, Mass. In 1815 he was appointed lecturer in Chemistry at Dartmouth College. In 1820, he was appointed professor of the Theory and Practice of Physic, Physiology, and Materia Medica, and thereupon became a resident of Hanover. He was also made professor of Intellectual Philosophy in 1828, and published his inaugural address, an acute and learned discourse, but delivered only one course of lectures. In 1837, Dr. Oliver removed to Cambridge, where he resided until his death, June 1st 1842. He had been appointed a professor in the Ohio Medical College at Cincinnati, and delivered one course of lectures, but resigned the office on account of his declining health. Dr. Oliver held a high rank in his profession; and his instructions were distinguished for the extent and accuracy of the learning which they presented in a simple, clear, and forcible manner. He published his valuable "First Lines in Physiology" in 1835. He was an eminent classical scholar, his earliest work having been the Greek-English Lexicon, which he prepared in conjunction with Mr. Pickering, while both were residents of Salem. Besides an extensive knowledge of modern literature, he was conversant with Hebrew, and was accustomed daily to read the Scriptures in their original languages. He was a man of untiring benevolence, inflexible integrity, and exemplary piety.

OLMUTZ. Population in 1840, 12,782. It is the seat of a university, which was founded in 1581, suspended in 1784, and restored in 1827. In 1833, it had, in all, 682 students. Olmütz has, besides, a gymnasium, a military school, an academy for the children of the nobility, an episcopal seminary, and numerous inferior schools. It has also a library of about 50,000 printed volumes, and many hundred MSS. It is the residence of an archbishop.

OPIUM. In Turkey and Persia, opiumeating, once very common, is on the decline, owing to the less rigid observance of Mohammed's injunctions against inebriating liquors; but in China, the use of it is on the increase. In the last country, however, it is smoked, a custom less pernicious than eating, on account of the preparations which the drug has to undergo before being fitted for the pipe. Indeed, taken in moderation in this way, it is said

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to have no bad consequences; and in regard to China, opium debauchees are said not to be more common there than are drunkards in other countries.-The opium trade with China, though prohibited so far back as 1796, attracted little notice from the Chinese government before the year 1820. Macao was for some time its centre; but in consequence of the misconduct of the Portuguese, it was removed to the small island of Lintin, in the estuary of the Canton river. There, notwithstanding many paper prohibitions, it was conducted with regularity, under the immediate notice of the imperial functionaries,-who, indeed, are the chief opium-smokers, until the arrival of Commissioner Lin at Canton in 1839, when the British superintendent, Captain Elliot, and a number of merchants, were seized, and retained (for about 6 weeks) until the delivery of the stock then on hand, consisting of 20,283 chests, valued at £3,000,000. Since this occurrence, the trade has been pursued in a more irregular manner; mostly by armed clippers, who, braving every danger, beat up the China seas even in the very height of the monsoon, and, wandering along the coast, dispose of their cargoes to junks, who bring out dollars and sycee silver in exchange. The quantity thus sold is said to be as great as ever,-a circumstance which can occasion little surprise, when it is considered that, besides the weakness and corruption of the imperial government, the drug, while its cost in India is under 400 rupees per chest, finds a market in China at from $400 to $500.-The motive commonly assigned for the prohibition of this traffic is the demoralizing tendency of the use of opium. Yet the poppy is cultivated in China in six different provinces, in one of which the opium prepared is said to amount annually to several thousand chests. But the moral reason is not the only one. Formerly, a large portion of the British imports were paid for in bullion; but since the expansion of the opium trade, the balance has been reversed, and there is now a constant drain of treasure from China. The imperial government, viewing the precious metals as the only true riches of a state, regard this as a national grievance; and the trade is accordingly denounced, in their state papers, as one which occasions "an oozing out of silver, whereby the fathomless gulf of the outer sea will soon be the receptacle of the easily exhaustible wealth of the central spring." It is, moreover, quite probable that the increased rigour of the Chinese, in respect to the trade carried on by

the English with its subjects, may in some degree be attributed to a growing jealousy of the influence exercised, or attempted to be exercised, by Great Britain over the nations of Central Asia.

OPORTO.* The exports of port wine have varied in latter years from 26,000 to near 40,000 pipes. England continues to be much the largest consumer of it. The high discriminating duties on French wines, imposed in the reign of William III., originally introduced it into the British markets, and gave it a preference, to which, though an excellent wine, it had no just title: this preference first generated, and its long continuance has since so confirmed, the taste for port among the great bulk of the population, that it bids fair to maintain its ascendency as an afterdinner wine, notwithstanding the equaliza tion of the duties. At an average of the 8 years ending with 1841, there were shipped from Oporto for England 26,370 pipes a year. Next to England, Brazil, the United States, Russia, and the north of Europe, are the principal consumers of port; but the total exports to them do not amount to a fourth part of those to Eng land. The Oporto Wine Company have the monopoly of the wine trade, and likewise of the brandy trade of the Douro.Though wine is the great staple, the exports of fruit are also considerable.-From 80,000 to 90,000 tons of shipping enter annually, of which one-fourth are British. Oporto, like Lisbon, has a regular steam communication with England. The popu lation of Oporto in 1827, including Villanova and Gaya, on the opposite side of the Douro, amounted to 80,000.

ORANGEMEN.* The Orange lodges were finally suppressed, by act of parliament, in 1836.

ORATORY signifies commonly a room in a private house set apart for prayer. It differs from a chapel, inasmuch as it does not contain an altar, nor may mass be celebrated in it.

Order of the DAY. In parliamentary usage, one method of superseding a ques tion, already proposed to a deliberative or legislative body, is by moving "for the order of the day to be read." This motion, to entitle it to precedence, must be for the order generally, and not for any particular order; and if this is carried, the orders must be read and proceeded on in the course in which they stand. But it can, in its turn, be superseded by a motion to adjourn.

OREGON.* See United States, (Sup.)
ORENBURG, the chief city of the govern-