LIEGE-LISZT.

been sent to other parts. Liege has, besides, manufactories of hardware of all kinds; of watches, jewellery, bronze, and other ornaments; woollen and cotton fabrics, hats, glue, tobacco, &c.; with numerous dyeing-houses, tanneries, and distilleries. A railroad connects it with Louvain and Brussels.-The university has 46 professors, and usually from 400 to 500 students. It possesses a cabinet of mineralogy, with upwards of 5600 specimens, a cabinet of 3000 fossils, found in the vicinity, and other scientific collections.

397

woof is composed of wool, the warp being thread.

LINTZ.* Population in 1839, exclusive of the garrison, 23,318. Since the conclusion of the last war with France, Lintz has been fortified in a peculiar manner; no less than 32 strong detached forts having been erected at a certain distance around it, 23 on the left and 9 on the right bank of the Danube, rendering it a fortified camp, in case of necessity, for an army. Owing to the demolition of the fortifications at Ulm by the French, there was not, previously to the erection of these works, any fortress to defend the valley of the Danube, between the frontier of France and Vienna.-Besides the manufacture of carpets and other woollen goods, there are manufactories of cotton and silk goods, leather, gold lace, cards, tobacco, &c. Lintz is a station for the steamers on the Danube, and the transit trade by that river is very considerable. Two railroads meet here: one goes north to Budweis, in Bohemia, 67 miles, and was the first constructed in Germany; and the other to Gmünden on the Traun, which it is intended to prolong to Grätz, by way of Leoben and Brück.

LIPINSKI* was at Dresden during the year 1837. He next again visited Russia, but soon returned to Germany. Since 1839, he has resided at Dresden as the director of the concerts at the court of Saxony. In 1836, he published a number of "capriccios and variations."

LISBON. * Population estimated to

LIGNIN is the scientific designation for the woody fibre. (When, by different reagents, all the soluble matters are extracted from wood, the insoluble residue is lignin.) It exhibits itself in a variety of forms, constituting the different textures of hard and soft wood, and various fibrous products, such as hemp, flax, cotton, &c. When, by fine mechanical division, it is reduced to a pulpy state, it is formed into paper. The analogy that exists between the composition of sugar, gum, starch, and even vinegar, and lignin, has suggested the possibility of the conversion of those proximate elements into each other; and it has accordingly been found, that by carefully roasting pure and fine sawdust, it is rendered partially soluble in water, and that a part of it is converted into a nutritious substance, probably intermediate between sugar and starch; and which, when mixed with a little flour, yields a palatable bread, not very unlike that made by some of the inhabitants of the northern parts of Europe of the bark of trees. Mixed with sulphuric acid, lignin passes into gum; and from this, sugar may be obtained by boiling it for some hours in a very dilute sulphuric acid: this sugar, when purified, much resembles grape or honey sugar. By this process, rags may be converted into nearly LISZT (Francis), one of the most distintheir own weight of this peculiar saccha-guished performers on the piano forte of rine matter. The production of vinegar the present day, was born in October 1811 by the destructive distillation of wood, ori- at Räding, near Oedenburg, in Hungary, ginally suggested about the middle of the not far from the borders of Germany. His 17th century by Glauber, has lately be- musical powers were very early developed; come an important article of manufacture. and he performed in public on the piano And upon the whole, there are very few forte when he was only nine years of age. natural products equally important with The pecuniary assistance bestowed upon lignin in their applications to the useful him by several Hungarian noblemen enaand ornamental arts. bled his father to take him to Vienna, where he enjoyed the instructions, both theoretical and practical, of the first masters in music. He next went to Paris, with the object in view of completing his musical education at the "conservatoire," under Cherubini. Repulsed by the latter, on account of his being a foreigner, he ventured, nevertheless, to perform, on se

LINK. Among the later works of this distinguished naturalist, may be mentioned here his "Elementa philosophiæ botan." (1824); his "Manual for the Knowledge of the most Useful Plants;" and his "Propylaæa to the Science of Natural History." LINSEY, OF LINSEY WOOLSEY, a kind of flannel, of which, however, only the

amount at present to 260,000. The trade of this city has greatly diminished since the separation of Portugal from Brazil. Upwards of 1000 vessels enter the port annually, of which about one-third are British.

398

LISZT-LIVINGSTON.

LIVERPOOL contained, in 1841, 286,487 inhabitants. The port of Liverpool has continued to be improved by artificial

veral occasions at the "théâtre de l'Opéra," and with the most extraordinary success. His reception in London, which he visited in the spring of 1824, was equally bril-means; as, for example, in 1839, by the liant. In the course of the following year, opening (by dredging) of the Victoria he produced in the French capital his opera Channel. Since then, vessels of the largest of Don Sanchez. He has since travelled size cross the bar of the Mersey at first over the greater part of Europe, his pro- quarter flood; and 14,000 vessels passed gress being marked, especially at Berlin, this channel in 12 months from its openby a series of the most unequivocal tri- ing. The aggregate annual value of the umphs. Liszt is a man of letters, and has imports and exports does not fall much short published some essays, and a volume of of the extraordinary sum of £40,000,000, poetry. It may be added that his musical if they do not rather exceed that amount. career has been several times interrupted, Four-fifths of the trade between the United and at one time for so long a period as Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland centwo years, by the excited condition of his tres at present in Liverpool. The nummind in reference to religious subjects. ber of British ships which entered the port of Liverpool, in 1841, was 2187, of the burden of 537,359 tons; of foreign ships, the number was 1305, of the burden of 468,873 tons. There belonged to Liverpool, on the 1st of January 1840, 1133 ships, of the registered burden of 269,176 tons, manned by 13,958 seamen.-Liverpool has, by means of canals and improved river navigation, a complete water communication, directly or indirectly, not only with the great manufacturing towns of Lancashire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire, from which it derives its chief articles of export, but likewise with the S. counties, and, in fact, with nearly every part of England. The facility of transit, however, both for passengers and goods, has been vastly increased since the opening of the railways, by which Liverpool is brought within an hour's distance of Manchester, and both are brought within 4 hours of Birmingham, and 9 hours of the metropolis.

LITTROW (John Joseph, Edler v.) was born in March 1781, at Bischof-Teinitz, in Bohemia. He became a pupil of the gymnasium at Prague in 1793, and a student in the university of that city in 1798. In 1802, he obtained a situation as private tutor in the family of a nobleman in Austrian Silesia. Until then, his passion for the acquisition of knowledge had been universal; but shortly afterwards, from a perusal of works of science to which he had access, his attention came to be in an especial manner directed to mathematical and astronomical investigations. He was appointed professor of Astronomy at Cracow in 1807, and next at Kasan, in Russia. In 1810, he became director of the observatory at Buda, in Hungary; whence he removed in 1819 to Vienna, to take the charge of the observatory in that city, and to occupy a professorship of Astronomy there.Littrow is the author of many valuable works, such as-a treatise on "Theoretical and Practical Astronomy" (2 vols., 1821-27); "Elements of Algebra and Geometry" (1823); on the "Measurement of Heights by the Barometer" (1823); "Popular Astronomy" (1825); a work on the Calendar, entitled "Kalenderiographie" (1828); "The Calculation of Annuities for Lives" (1829); "Lectures on Astronomy" (2 vols., 1830); "Dioptrics" (1830); Gnomonics" (1831); a treatise on Life Insurance (1832); another on Weights and Measures (1832); "On the Comet of the year 1832" (1832); "On the Calculation of Probabilities" (1833); "On the Constellations and Nebula of the Heavens" (1835); "The Double Stars" (1835); "The Wonders of the Heavens" (3 vols., 1836); "A Short Introduction to the Mathematics" (1838); "Atlas of the Starry Heavens" (1839); and the "Annals of the Observatory at Vienna" (18 vols. 1821-39).

LIVINGSTON (Edward) was born in the year 1764, at Clermont (Livingston's manor), in Columbia county, in the state of New York. He was a younger brother of Mr. Robert R. Livingston, of whom a notice was given in a previous volume of this work. He went to school at Albany, and then at Esopus or Kingston, on the Hudson river. In 1779, he entered an advanced class of Princeton College, where he took his degree of A.B. two years afterwards. Having selected the law for a profession, he pursued the study of it at Albany, and upon being admitted to the bar in 1785, established himself in the city of New York. There, before he reached the age of 30, he had acquired a high reputation for his attainments as a jurist, and ability as an advocate.—Mr. Livingston was, in 1794, elected a representative in Congress, from the city of New York and some of the neighbouring counties. During the 6 years that he was a member of that body,

he was one of the leaders of the party oppos- | unnecessary delay and expense. It was ed to the administration of the general go- adopted by the Legislature, as well through vernment. His opposition, however, was the ability displayed by its framers in its devoid of asperity, and was far from being support, as on account of its own intrinsic indiscriminate in its character. Nor was merits; in despite of the resistance which his attention by any means confined to the it met with from the members of the bar political questions by which the community generally who had removed to Louisiana was at that time agitated. To him were from the other States of the American owing the first, though ineffectual, attempts Union. But this was merely an introducto mitigate the severity of our criminal tory step to other still more important lalaws, and to adapt the punishments in- bours of a similar character. In 1820, he flicted, more justly than had before been was appointed, jointly with Messrs. Derdone, to the nature of the offence which was bigny and Moreau, to revise the system committed. He urged the passage, also, of civil or municipal law, a compound of of several laws to protect or relieve Ame- French, Spanish, and American or Engrican seamen, left by accident or misfor-lish jurisprudence, hitherto in use in the tane on foreign shores. And he gave his state of Louisiana; and in 1821, he was earnest support to the measures for the charged solely with the preparation of a gradual increase of the navy. Shortly new system of penal law. The new civil after retiring from Congress, he was ap- code was presented to the Legislature in pointed by the president, Mr. Jefferson, to 1823, and, with the exception of the comthe office of attorney of the United States mercial part, to which objections were for the state of New York; and about the made, was promptly adopted by it. Mr. Lisame time he was elected mayor of the vingston made, in 1822, a preliminary report city of New York, an office which, as then on the principles and plan on which he proconstituted, required the exercise of im- posed to frame the new criminal code, with portant judicial functions, in addition to specimens of the mode of its execution. the duties ordinarily performed by the first This report was soon afterwards reprinted municipal magistrate of a large city. In in London; and a French translation of it 1803, during his mayoralty, the city expe- was published at Paris, in 1825. The sysrienced an attack of the yellow fever; tem of penal law, in the form in which when "his personal exertions and benevo- we now have it, was submitted to the Lelence were fearlessly displayed, at the gislature in the year 1826. It is not, prorisk of, and almost with the loss of his perly speaking, a single code, but consists own life." In the mean time, his private of "a code of crimes and punishments, a affairs having been completely neglected, code of criminal procedure, a code of eviin consequence of his assiduous attention dence, a code of reform and prison discito those of the public, they became great- pline, and a book of definitions, together ly deranged; and through the misconduct with introductory reports to each of the of persons who had been entrusted by him codes, pointing out the changes made in with the collection of debts due to the existing laws, the new enactments proUnited States, he was subjected to heavy posed, and the principles and reasons on liabilities. He at once resigned his offices, which they were founded." These were and by a removal to Louisiana, which had all published together at Philadelphia, in just been purchased from France, sought one large 8vo volume, in the year 1833. for a rich field, where, by his professional "The system," Mr. Gilpin tells us in his labours, he could hope to obtain the means biographical notice of Mr. Livingston, read of relieving himself from his pecuniary before the American Philosophical Society, embarrassments. Nor was he disappoint- and inserted in the 3d volume of the Ameed; for he was ultimately enabled to dis- rican Law Magazine, "has not, it is becharge the obligations which he had in- lieved, been yet finally acted upon, in its curred, both principal and interest. Short- extended form, by the Legislature of Louly after his arrival in Louisiana, the Le- isiana; but it does not, on this account, gislature of that territory entrusted to him, claim less justly the admiration of the in conjunction with the late Mr. James philanthropist and jurist. It is a work Brown, the preparation of a system of ju- worthy of the deep consideration of all dicial procedure. Discarding the fictions communities. The beauty of its arrangeand technicalities of the English law, and ment, the wisdom of its provisions, and avoiding also the prolixity of the Spanish, the simplicity of its forms, have never and not unfrequently of the French code, been surpassed, probably never equalled, they produced a simple and intelligible in any similar work; and it is not without system, and one well calculated to prevent entire justice, that this admirable produc

400

LIVINGSTON-LOMOND.

LOBAU* (count). The services rendered by him, as commander of the national guards of Paris, in maintaining the order and tranquillity of that metropolis, were rewarded by his promotion, in July 1831, to the dignity of a marshal of France. He died in the month of November 1838.

tion has contributed, perhaps more than | Livingston is most extensively known; any other of his labours, to secure to Mr. and upon his merits as such his reputation Livingston that eminent place which he will chiefly rest, and long endure. These holds among those who are regarded, not merits were acknowledged in letters to merely as distinguished jurists, but as pub- him, and otherwise, by some of the most lic benefactors."-For a period of 20 years, distinguished of his contemporaries abroad, Mr. Livingston had taken no part in pub- as well as at home; and they procured for lic affairs, excepting in so far as they him, among other honours of a similar nawere connected with the theory or prac- ture, that of being chosen to be one of the tice of his profession, and excepting, too, foreign associates of the Academy of Scithe part which he acted in the defence of ences of Paris, in the Moral and Political New Orleans, in the capacity of an aide- department. de-camp of General Jackson. At length, in 1823, on his signifying his intention to retire from the bar, he was elected a representative in Congress from the state of Louisiana; in 1829, he was transferred to a seat in the Senate of the United States; and in 1831, he was appointed by General Jackson to the office of secretary of state, then vacant by the resignation of Mr. Van Buren. During his service in Congress, from 1823 to 1831, Mr. Livingston did not speak often, and only on important questions of general policy. He was always listened to with marked attention and respect, and distinguished himself especially in the celebrated debate in the Senate on Mr. Foote's resolution, relative to the public lands. As the head of the department of State, his correspondence, and other documents of which he was the author, will compare without disparagement with those that have proceeded from the other eminent men who, since the organization of the government, have occupied the same position, and exhibit throughout a most enlightened and liberal spirit in reference to the foreign relations of the country. In the summer of 1833, the president selected Mr. Livingston to fill the post of American minister to France; it being at the time one of unusual importance, on account of the difficulties which had sprung out of the refusal by the French Chambers to make provision for the payment of the indemnity due to the United States, for injuries committed against their commerce during the last European war. Mr. Liv-derick von Schlegel's "Lectures on Aningston conducted his mission, under try- cient and Modern Literature." ing circumstances, in a manner redounding very much to his own credit, as well as to the honour of the country which he represented. On his return to America in the spring of 1835, he retired to his seat at Rhinebeck, on the Hudson river, in the midst of his numerous family connexions. He died there on the 23d of May 1836.Eminent as he was as a statesman, and as a member of the American bar, it is, however, as a theoretical jurist that Mr.

LOCKHART (John Gibson) was born in January 1794, at Cambusnethar in the Scottish county of Lanark. When 15 years old, he became a student in the University of Oxford, and took his degree of A.M. there in 1813. He then studied the law, and was admitted, in 1816, as an advocate at the Edinburgh bar. His attention was, however, soon withdrawn from the practice of his profession to the more agreeable pursuits of literature; and he became one of the most active contributors to "Blackwood's Magazine." In 1819, he published his "Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk," which were very extensively read, in America as well as in Europe. This was followed (1820-1825) by his novels or tales of "Adam Blair," "Mathew Wald," "Valerius," and "Reginald Dalton," and by a volume of Spanish romances in an English version. His repu tation was now fully established; and in 1825, he was selected to be the editor of the "London Quarterly Review," to which he has contributed a number of very able articles. In 1827, Mr. Lockhart published an account of the life of Robert Burns; in 1829, one of Napoleon; and in 1837, that of Sir Walter Scott, whose daughter he had married. He has also translated Fre

LOMOND (Ben), a mountain of Scotland, situated between lochs Lomond and Katrine, 27 miles N.W, of Glasgow. It is elevated 3195 feet above the level of the sea, and its summit commands a great extent of view, on which account it is more frequently visited than any of the highland mountains.

LOMOND (Loch) is a lake of Scotland, between the counties of Dunbarton and Stirling. It is the largest of the British