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INDIA.

attention in Europe or America, in any considerable degree, to the affairs of that country, until the British incursion into Afghanistan. The grounds alleged by the governor-general, Lord Auckland, for making war against the Afghans, as announced by him on the 1st of October 1838, were the treatment experienced at the hands of Dost Mohammed, the ruler at Cabul, by Runjeet Sing, who was an ally of the E. I. Company; the refusal to the British of the unrestricted navigation of the Indus; the necessity of securing a bulwark on the N. W. frontier of Hindostan against the apprehended invasion of a foreign power; and that the interference of the company in his behalf had been required by its ally Shah Soojah, the lawful chief of Cabul, but who had been deposed by his enemies. A British force of 26,000 men advanced accordingly into the heart of Afghanistan, by the route of Candahar. Every attempt to resist it on its route proved abortive; and it re-established Shah Soojah in his capital, in the month of August 1839. Towards the end of that year, the country was evacuated by the British, with the exception of a small body of men left in garrison at Jellalabad, to support the shah in case of necessity. In the course of the next year, however, to provide more efficient means for the maintenance of the existing condition of things, an additional force was sent to be stationed at Cabul itself. To keep its communication open with the E. I. Company's possessions in India, it was judged expedient to purchase from the independent tribes an undisturbed passage at all times through the mountain passes, on the road leading to Jellalabad. It would appear that the money for this purpose was not paid to the full amount of what had been promised; in consequence of which some of those tribes occupied the passes in such numbers, that it was only with the greatest difficulty that General Sale was able to make his way through them, with the detachment under his command. This occurred in the autumn of 1841. Almost immediately afterwards, the Afghans rose in insurrection at Cabul, and hemmed in the British force there under General Elphinstone so closely, as to render it expedient, in the opinion of the latter and his advisers, to consent to quit altogether the capital of Afghanistan, on the assurance given by Akbar Khan of his retreat upon Jellalabad not being in any manner molested; and this, too, notwithstanding that, just before, the British resident, Sir William M'Naghten, had been treacherously put to death by VOL. XIV.-46

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that chief, in a conference held with him in the neighbourhood of the British encampment. The conditions of the agreement which had been made were unscrupulously violated by the enemy; and the British troops, harassed on their march by continued attacks, perished almost to a man before reaching Jellalabad. In justice, however, to Akbar Khan, it is proper to mention that the officers and ladies who fell into his hands on this calamitous occasion, were treated by him in a most kind and respectful manner. "No European power," such is their own testimony, "could have treated prisoners of war better." It now became imperative on the government of India to restore the prestige of the superiority of the British arms by sending another army into Afghanistan, and striking a blow that would resound throughout the immense population subject to its sway. The division of General Pollock reached Jellalabad in April 1842, and united itself in that city to the troops under the orders of General Sale, who had succeeded in maintaining himself against all the efforts of the Afghans to drive him from his position. After a delay there of several months, General Pollock commenced his march on the 20th of August upon Cabul, which he entered, having totally defeated Akbar Khan on his way, on the 16th of the following month. In a few days afterwards, all the prisoners, one only excepted, were restored to their friends; and before long, the British army was joined by General Nott, who had advanced into Afghanistan by way of Candahar, and had been successful in various conflicts with the enemy. Lord Ellenborough, who had superseded Lord Auckland in the office of governor-general, now announced in a proclamation that the honour of the British arins having been restored by the recent victories which had been achieved, the army in possession of Afghanistan should be withdrawn to the Sutledge, and that he would "leave it to the Afghans themselves to create a government amidst the anarchy which is a consequence of their crimes." As a signal punishment of that people for the treacheries of which they had been guilty, the generals, before commencing their retrograde movement, directed or permitted their troops to commit various ravages, scarcely in accordance with the laws of civilized warfare; such, for example, as the destruction of the greater part of the city of Cabul, of the strong and populous town of Istalif, as well as of a number of other towns. On their march, too, to the Sutledge, the troops are

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instruction in drawing until his parents removed to the city of New York, about the year 1812. While under the care of an elementary teacher, he attracted the attention of Jarvis, the painter, who proposed to receive him as a pupil. This proposal decided his career; a warrant which had been obtained for him to enter the Military Academy at West Point as a cadet was relinquished, and he entered upon a seven years' apprenticeship with Jarvis. He continued to serve out this whole term, and to this exact and regular discipline much of his professional reputation was owing. Inman began his career as a portrait and miniature painter in New York, and soon acquired a high reputation for the excellence and fidelity of his likenesses. He afterwards removed to Philadelphia, and then to a farm which he purchased in the neighbourhood of Mount Holly, New Jersey, being constantly engaged in his profession,

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stated to have committed every kind of devastation. One writer says, "Our path is marked by fire and sword; nothing escapes us; friends and foes, at least soidisant friends, share the same fate." The next important event in the history of British India since the conclusion of the Afghanistan war, was the annexation of Sinde to the British empire, in 1843. The Ameers or princes of that province, which is situated on both sides of the Indus, extending from the Indian Ocean to the Punjab, had evinced, during the occurrences of which some account has been given, an unfriendly disposition towards the British government. This circumstance drew upon them the attention of the latter, which required them to subscribe to a new treaty, granting to the British certain privileges in their dominions, beyond what had been stipulated for in preceding treaties. Though much disinclined to this measure, they actually subscribed the treaty on the 14th of Feb-chiefly as a portrait painter. He returned ruary 1843, but on the following day to the city of New York, which was his treacherously attacked the residence of place of residence during the remaining the British Commissioners with a large years of his life. Remarkable for great body of men. On the 17th of the same rapidity as well as truth in his portraits, month, a severe action took place between he has left, amidst a large number of picthe British troops under Sir Charles Na- tures, likenesses of many of his distinpier and the forces of the Ameers, who, guished countrymen. Among these, his having been defeated, on the next day portraits of Bishop White and Chief-Jussurrendered themselves prisoners of war. tice Marshall may be mentioned as works Their territory was appropriated as alrea- of the highest order of merit. The genius dy mentioned. The contest which has of Inman was not restricted to that branch more recently occurred with the warlike of art in which he was chiefly engaged; Sikhs, who occupy the country called the he enjoyed also a fine reputation for fancy Punjab, threatened, for a short time, more and landscape painting, of which he has seriously than any other in which the Bri- left some admirable specimens. The prostish had for many years been engaged, the perity of Inman's professional career was safety of their eastern empire. But the followed by pecuniary embarrassment, in latter have been victorious, and the danger which he became involved by unfortunate apprehended has passed away; although speculations about 1836. His health, too, they were in a great measure taken by was many years seriously impaired, and surprise, and their adversaries were nume- he was prevented from executing the rous, well organized, and abundantly pro- commission from Congress to paint a picvided with artillery, as well as with the ture for the Capitol, for which he had various other munitions of war. Lord El- chosen as his subject a scene illustrative lenborough, it may be proper to mention, of Settlers in the West. In the summer was superseded in the office of governor- of 1844, Inman visited England for his general of India, in, 1844, by Sir Henry health, and during his short visit exeHardinge. This distinguished officer, waiv-cuted two of his most remarkable likeing his superiority of rank, volunteered to nesses, the portraits of Wordsworth and act as second in command, under the com- of Chalmers. He returned without immander-in-chief, Sir Hugh Gough, in the provement of his health; and the malady war with the Sikhs. which had for many years afflicted him proved to be a disease of the heart, in one of its most aggravated forms, accompa nied with frequent and severe paroxysms, During the intervals, he continued to prac tise his art with an unabated zeal and genius, until within a few weeks of his

INMAN (Henry), a distinguished American painter, was born at Utica in the State of New York, on the 20th of October 1801. His talent for that department of art in which he became eminent showed itself early, but he received no regular

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death, which took place early in January | Petersburg and Moscow by way of To1846. - Mr. Inman was gifted with bril- bolsk. liant conversational powers, and his private and professional career was distinguished by the feelings of a genuine artist towards his fellow-artists, from whom he received an expression of their esteem by being chosen Vice-President of the National Academy of Design. Immediately after his death, a public exhibition was given, in New York, of such of his paintings as could readily be collected, for the benefit of his widow and children. The extent of his works may be in some measure judged of from the fact that this partial collection contained 127 paintings of various kinds.

INNSPRUCK.* Population in 1840, 10,738. The university in this place is of the second order, in which the instruction rendered is entirely gratuitous. It occupies a fine and extensive building, and has 18 professors, together with exhibitions to the amount of 12,000 florins yearly. It is attended by several hundred students, and has attached to it a library, botanic garden, and cabinet of physical objects. The Ferdinandeum, founded in 1823 upon the model of the Johanneum of Grätz, is a museum devoted to the productions of the Tyrol, both in art and natural history, and contains some interesting collections, particularly in the department of mineralogy.

INTENDANT is a word much used in France, to denote a person who has the charge, direction, or management, of some office or department; as an intendant of the marine, of the finances, &c.

IRELAND. See United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, (Sup.) IRKUTSK.* Population of the town, including the military stationed there, about 15,000. It is the seat of an archbishop, and of a Russian governor, whose authority extends over the immense provinces of Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Okhotsk, Kamtschatka, and Russian America. It has numerous educational establishments, including, besides the gymnasium, with a library of 5000 volumes, an episcopal seminary, a school of navigation, with classes of instruction in the Tartar, Chinese, and Japanese languages, normal, secondary, Lancastrian, and other schools, and a cabinet of mineralogy. It is the great entrepôt for the commerce of N. E. Asia, importing tea, rhubarb, fruit, paper, silks, porcelain, and other manufactured goods, from China by way of Kiachta, and furs from Kamtschatka, the Aleutian Islands, and Russian America; which articles are here exchanged for European goods, sent from

IRON.* The following estimate has been lately made of the annual produce of iron in different countries:-France possesses (1841) 475 furnaces, which produce 347,700 tons of cast-metal, worth £2,520,000 sterling, and 1500 refining furnaces, which produce 224,100 tons of malleable iron, worth £3,720,000; Sweden, 100,000 tons; United States (1837) 250,000 tons; Belgium (1837) 135,000 tons, from 89 furnaces; Saxony, 99, 127 quintals, from 19 furnaces; Syria, 20,000 tons; Spain, 8000 tons. The quantity of iron produced in Great Britain, which in 1835 was estimated at about a million of tons, is supposed to have amounted in 1839 to as many as 1,512,000 tons; and the annual produce has since been steadily augmenting. This increase has been owing to the recently extended applications of iron to railways, machinery, gasapparatus, roofs, columns, windows, and furniture; and it was proportionally greatest in Scotland, where such was the expansion of the iron trade, that the produce, though only 37,700 tons in 1828, was augmented in 1840 to 250,000 tons, a quantity greater by 47 per cent. than the total produce of all Britain in 1802.-Great Britain has a superiority over other countries in the cheapness, as well as in the quantity, of the iron produced. In point of quality, however, the British iron is greatly inferior to that of Sweden, Norway, Russia, India, and other countries, which, besides possessing a superior ore, have the means of converting it into metal by the aid of charcoal, an agent preferred to coal, at least in the preparation of bar-iron. Hence a preference is given in England to foreign iron in the manufacture of cutlery; and about 20,000 tons are annually imported for that purpose, mostly at Hull, for transmission to Sheffield. It is principally brought from Sweden, where the bar-iron is prepared by hammering instead of rolling; the finest being that made from the magnetical ore of the celebrated mines of Dannemora, near Upsal, and of Taberg, near lake Wetter.

ISABELLA II., queen of Spain. See Spain, (Sup.)

ISNARD* died about the year 1830.

ITALY.* The French revolution of July 1830, as elsewhere on the continent of Europe, produced a high degree of excitement throughout Italy; and there can be little doubt that, but for the prompt and energetic preventive measures adopted by the Austrian government, revolutions in

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a trace of carbonate, of lime.-Not only the genuine ivory black, but likewise a mixture of charcoal and phosphate of lime, obtained by burning bone, is sold under this name, and, like other forms of animal charcoal, is very effective in depriving certain substances of their colour.

a similar spirit would have taken place sembling horn, and 66 of phosphate, with throughout the different states into which it is divided. Austrian troops in sufficient force were assembled, in the LombardoVenitian kingdom, to crush any insurrection in that quarter, however formidable, and to be in readiness to march to the aid of the other Italian governments, on the occurrence of any emergency. It was only at Bologna and Modena that any occasion arose for employing them; the rest of the country was prudent enough to vent its dissatisfaction with the existing order of things in murmurs, or at farthest in words. Tranquillity was again soon everywhere re-established, and has continued down to the present time, with scarcely any interruption. On the accession, in 1835, of the present emperor of Austria to the throne, the people of Italy seemed to him to be so resigned, if not reconciled, to their fate, that he ventured to liberate the prisoners of Spielberg, and to grant a general amnesty for political offences.

IVORY.* Besides the uses of it already mentioned, namely, as "a material for toys, and as panels for miniature paintings," ivory is extensively employed for knifehandles, and in the construction of mathematical and musical instruments. Ivory articles are said to be manufactured to a greater extent, and with more skill, at Dieppe in France, than in any other place in Europe; but the preparation of this beautiful material is much better understood by the Chinese than by any other people. The western and eastern coasts of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, India, and the countries to the eastward of the Straits of Malacca, are the great marts whence supplies of ivory are derived; but the most esteemed come from Africa, being of a closer texture, and less liable to turn yellow, than those from the East Indies. Though elephant's tusks are sometimes exported from Pegu and Cochin China weighing as much as 150 lbs., they are seldom to be met with above 70 lbs. in weight; and their average weight may be stated at 60 lbs. --The tusks or teeth of the sea-horse and hippopotamus are also used as ivory. The latter, procured in Africa, are harder and whiter than those of the elephant, and do not turn yellow so soon. Fossil ivory from the tusks of the mammoth or elephant is that principally used by the Russian turners: it is found plentifully, and in a high state of preservation, in the Laichovian isles, and on the shores of the Frozen Sea.-Ivory consists of about 24 per cent. of animal matter re

IVORY (James) was born at Dundee in 1765. After receiving the rudiments of his education in the public schools of that town, he was sent, at the age of 14, to the university of St. Andrew's, where he spent six years. The first four of these were occupied in the study of mathematics, philosophy, and languages; and the remaining two, in conformity with the wishes of his father, who intended that he should become a clergyman in the Church of Scotland, in that of theology. He then removed, in company with Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Leslie, who had been his fellowstudent at St. Andrew's, to the University of Edinburgh, where he spent one year in completing his theological studies, but was never admitted to the office of a Christian minister. Immediately on quitting the university in 1786, he was induced to accept of the appointment of assistant teacher in the academy then recently instituted in Dundee, with the purpose of giving instruction in mathematics and natural philosophy; for the prosecution of which sciences he had imbibed a strong predilection, as well as evinced a peculiar aptitude. The duties of this post he continued to fulfil during 3 years. At the end of this time, he became a partner and manager of a flax-spinning company at Douglastown in Forfarshire; and he was thus engaged from 1789 to 1804. During this period of 15 years, while Mr. Ivory was employed daily in operations apparently very uncongenial with the tastes of a man of science, he succeeded, by a diligent use of his leisure hours, in making himself thoroughly acquainted with the profoundest works, not only of the English, but also of the continental mathematicians. He became, besides, extensively known by his own original researches; his earliest memoir, presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, having been read before that body in November 1796.-In 1804, the company of which Mr. Ivory was a partner was dissolved; and he applied for, and immediately obtained, one of the mathemati cal professorships in the Military Academy at Marlow (afterwards removed to Sandhurst). He resigned this office, and retired to private life, in 1819; after which period, he devoted himself entirely to sci

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entific researches; and the results of his most of them are indicative of talents and labours have been printed chiefly in the attainments of the first order. He was a volumes of the " Philosophical Transac- fellow of the Royal Society of London; an tions." In 1831, William IV., with the honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Hanoverian Guelphic Order of Knighthood, Edinburgh; an honorary member of the granted him, at the suggestion of Lord Royal Irish Academy, and of the CamBrougham, a pension of £300 per annum, bridge Philosophical Society; and a correswhich he enjoyed during the rest of his life; ponding member of the Institute of France, and, in 1839, the University of St. Andrew's of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berconferred upon him the degree of LL.D. lin, and of the Royal Society of GöttinHe lived in great privacy in or near Lon-gen. He received, in 1814, the Copley don till the time of his death, which hap-medal for his mathematical communicapened on the 21st of September 1842, in tions to the Royal Society; in 1826, one the 77th year of his age.. Mr. Ivory's of the royal medals for his paper on astroworks consist of numerous papers relating nomical refractions, published in 1823; to various branches of the pure mathema- and, in 1839, another royal medal for his tics and to physical astronomy, inserted in theory of astronomical refractions, which the scientific collections and journals; and was published in 1838.

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ACKSON (General Andrew) was born wards chosen a representative, and in the on the 15th of March 1767, at the next year a senator, in Congress. But his Waxsaw settlement, in South Carolina. seat in the Senate he held only for a single His parents emigrated to this country, two session, alleging, as a reason for resigning years previously, from the north of Ireland. it, his distaste for the intrigues of politics. He lost his father at a very early age; and On this, he was appointed by the Legislathe task of bringing him up devolved ex- ture of Tennessee to be a judge of the clusively upon his mother. Intending him, Supreme Court of that state; an office it is said, to become a clergyman, she re- which he accepted with reluctance, and solved, though restricted in her pecuniary from which he soon retired to his farm on circumstances, to give him a liberal edu- the Cumberland river, near Nashville. cation. For this purpose, she placed him And there he continued to reside till the at an academy, where he continued until breaking out of the war with Great Brihis studies were interrupted by the ad- tain, in 1812.-During the earlier part of vance of the British troops into the neigh- his residence in Tennessee, General Jack-. bourhood, during the revolutionary war. son had repeatedly distinguished himself Young as he was (scarcely 14 years of by his prowess, in the warfare carried on age), in company with an elder brother by the settlers with their Indian neighhe joined the American army. Before bours, and had even earned from the latter, long, however, they had the misfortune of by his exploits, the appellations of "Sharp being made prisoners by the enemy, who Knife" and "Pointed Arrow." That after maltreated them as rebels, and inflicted attaining to a prominent position in civil upon them injuries of which the brother life, he should be selected by his fellowdied after having been exchanged. —An- citizens to occupy a corresponding militadrew Jackson commenced the study of the ry rank among them, was therefore almost law at Salisbury, in North Carolina, in the a matter of course. The war of 1812, acwinter of 1784, and was admitted to the cordingly, found him a major-general of bar in 1786. In 1788, he removed to one of the divisions of the Tennessee miliNashville, then a new settlement in the tia. In the month of November of that western district of N. Carolina. This dis- year, he proceeded, by the direction of the trict having been ceded to the United government, at the head of a body of beStates, and organized into a territory in tween two and three thousand volunteers, 1790, he was appointed to the office of who had assembled on his invitation, down United States' attorney; and when the ter- the Mississippi to Natchez, for the protec ritory, in its turn, in 1793 became the state tion of the country against an apprehendof Tennessee, he was a member of the con- ed hostile movement on the part of the vention to frame a constitution for it, and Indians. The danger having passed away, took a conspicuous part in the proceedings he was ordered by the secretary of war to of this body. He was immediately after-disband his troops on the spot. This order

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