opera which he composed was the "Caliph of Bagdad." GARNERIN. The younger of the brothers of this name died in 1823; the elder was still living in 1841. sia, March 22d 1798, was a professor in the university of that city, and one of the most eminent jurists of Germany. He may, indeed, be regarded as having been for some years at the head of the German philosophical school of jurisprudence, as GARNIER (Count Germain), was born at Savigny was and is of the historical school. Auxerre in France, November 8th 1754, He has written a number of juridical and at the commencement of the revoluworks, which enjoy a high reputation, tion of 1789 was an attorney (procureur) such as his treatise on obligations or con- at the court of the Châtelet. He then tracts, "Uber römisches Obligationen- became the secretary of Mad. Adélaïde, Recht" (1819); his "Scholia to Gaius;" the aunt of Louis 16th. Thenceforth he an important work on the law of inheri- devoted himself chiefly to literature, not tance, entitled "Das Erbrecht in welt- however without taking part in the agigeschichtlicher Entwickelung" (4 vols. tating politics of the day. He was a mo1824-35); and his "System of Roman derate monarchist, and was at one time, Law" (1827). As a professor, Gans was on account of his moderation rendering exceedingly able; he might even be called him less obnoxious to the public generally eloquent, a merit not often aimed at, and than most other royalists, offered by the seldom attained, by the German professors. king the post of minister of justice, which His lectures were always numerously at- he declined from an unwillingness to entended, especially his courses on modern counter the hazards he would be subjected history. These were deeply imbued with to, or perhaps despairing of being able to the spirit of the age, and evinced in the resist successfully the farther progress of lecturer great freedom and boldness of the revolution. Immediately after the thought and expression; for which reason events of the 10th of August 1792, he they were, after a time, discontinued by emigrated to Switzerland, where he lived an injunction of the Prussian government. in retirement till the establishment of the Among his extra-professional publications government of the Directory, when he is that of which he professed himself to be returned to France. Napoleon, on becomsimply the editor, but which may, in reality, ing First Consul, appointed him prefect of be looked upon as his own, viz. "Hegel's the department of the Seine and Oise. In Lectures on the Philosophy of History, 1804, he became a senator, and soon afteredited by Gans" (1837). Hegel, on his wards a count of the empire. He was death, left behind him only the introduc-president of the Senate from 1809 to tion.-Gans was cut off by apoplexy, on the 1811.-Notwithstanding the favour he en5th of May 1839, at the early age of 41. joyed during the period of the empire, he GARAT (Dominique Joseph) died on embraced in 1814, with zeal, the cause of the 9th of December 1833.-Besides the the Bourbons, and was allowed to retain work already mentioned and a number of his rank as a peer of France. During the eulogies and other minor productions, he hundred days, he refused to accept of published "Considérations sur la Révolu- office, but did not quit the French territory. tion" (1792), and "Mémoires sur la Révo- For his fidelity to the royal cause, he was lution" (1795); which last work contains a rewarded by Louis XVIII. by being made defence of his conduct while minister of a minister of state and a member of his justice. He was elected a member of the privy council. In the Chamber of Peers, French Academy in 1806, but was ex- he took a prominent part in reference to cluded from it at the Restoration. A short all financial measures, and was a steady time before his death, he was chosen a supporter of the government until his member of the Academy of the Moral and death, October 4th 1821.-Of Garnier's Political Sciences. numerous publications, that which is best known, at least beyond the limits of his own country, is his translation into French of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, to which he added numerous notes, written in accordance with the doctrines of the school of Quesnay (1806. 2d ed. 1822). Some of the most important of his other works are his essay "De la propriété considérée dans ses rapports avec le droit politique" (1792); an "Abrégé élémentaire des principes de l'économie politique" GARCIA (Manuel), born at Seville in Spain, in 1779, was a composer of music and a celebrated opera singer. He began his professional career at Madrid in 1801, and subsequently travelled through France and Italy, as well as his own country, obtaining everywhere great applause. After making a visit to America, he returned to Europe, and died at Paris in 1832.-He was the father of the celebrated singer, Mad. Malibran. -The most successful 302 GARNIER GASTON. (1796); and the "Théorie des banques d'escompte" (1806). GAS LIGHTING. The use of coal gas, as a means of illumination, is every year becoming more general. It has been introduced into all the large towns of Great Britain, and into many on the continent of Europe and in the United States.-The economy of gas light is variously estimated. According to Mr. Brande, the cost of a lamp fed by gas, and giving the light of 7 candles, will (in England) be d. per hour; of Argand's lamp with spermaceti oil, 3d.; of mould candles, 34d.; and of wax candles, 1s. 2d. per hour. Dr. Ure, in estimating the comparative economy of different kinds of light, and assuming that of the illuminating power from wax to be indicated by 100, states that from tallow to be 28.6; oil, 14.3; coal gas, 4.76; thus making the cost of wax about 3 times that of tallow, and tallow about 6 times that of coal gas.-The light from gas, however, besides being procured at a smaller expense, is also more generally convenient than that yielded by other substances in the ordinary mode, as it may be reduced in an instant from the greatest splendour to the faintest degree of illumination, by the simple adjustment of the stop-cock. Its uses in buildings of all kinds, whether for industrial or domestic purposes, are universally known and appreciated; and still more conspicuous, perhaps, is its superiority as a street light. The usual retail price of the gas in England is from 7s. to 10s. per 1000 cubic feet. In Philadelphia, it is furnished at the rate of $2.80 per 1000 cubic feet; 5 per cent. besides being deducted for prompt payment. GASTON (William) was born at Newbern, in North Carolina, on the 19th day of September 1778. His paternal ancestors were Huguenots, who, at the period of the revocation of the edict of Nantes, sought refuge in Ireland; where his father was born, and where he had an uncle, who was an eminent presbyterian clergyman. Dr. Alexander Gaston, the father, received his professional education in the medical school at Edinburgh, and was subsequently appointed a surgeon in the British navy; but, early in life, he came to this country, and settled at Newbern. He was distinguished among the patriots of the Revolution; was a member of the committee of safety for the district in which he resided; and served in the army, at times in his professional capacity, and once in the command of a body of volunteers, which led to his early and tragical death, being shot by a party of tories in the presence of his wife and family. The mother of Mr. William Gaston was of the Roman Catholic faith, and was distinguished for her prudence, intelligence, and accomplishments. Only three years old at his father's death, it was to her exclusively that he owed those early impressions which determined his future character and principles. A disposition, in childhood "volatile and irritable," was so trained as to become a pattern of patience and perseverance. While, too, he very naturally embraced the faith of his mother, he was at the same time imbued by her with the most liberal sentiments of toleration and kindness towards those who differed from her in their religious belief.— In the autumn of 1791, when 13 years of age, he was sent to the college at Georgetown, in the district of Columbia, where his attention was assiduously directed to the study of the ancient classics. At the end of 18 months, however, he was recalled home, on account of the impaired state of his health. This having been restored, he was, after receiving some farther preparatory instruction, entered as a member of the junior class of Princeton college, in New Jersey, in 1794. There he graduated, in 1796, with the highest honours of the institution. He then studied law in his native town with Francis Xavier Martin, who was afterwards a judge of the Supreme Court of the state of Louisiana.In 1798, Mr. Gaston was admitted to practice; in the summer of 1800, before he had completed his 22d year, he was elected a member of the senate of North Carolina; and he very soon became conspicuous for his talents, influence, and usefulness. In 1808, he was one of the electors of president and vice-president, and in 1813 a representative in Congress, in which body he continued till 1817. He took an active part in its deliberations, and was a prominent leader of the party adverse to the then existing administration of the general government. One of his greatest efforts on the floor of Congress was his speech, in the early part of the year 1815, in opposition to the bill authorizing the presi dent to contract a loan of $25,000,000, for the purpose of carrying on the war with effect against Great Britain. He resisted its passage on the ground of its being intended to provide the means of an invasion of Canada, instead of being limited, as he judged that it should be, to the defence merely of our own territory from the ag gressions of the enemy. His next most remarkable speech was, perhaps, that upon GASTON-GENEVA. the motion of one of his colleagues from North Carolina to expunge the previous question" from the rules of the House, and in which the learning and eloquence displayed by him excited the surprise, as well as admiration, of his auditors.-After the year 1817, his sphere of usefulness was confined to his own state, where he continued to be unremittingly occupied at the bar, in the Legislature, in the Convention to amend the constitution, and lastly as a judge of the Supreme Court. He died at Raleigh, on the 23d of January 1844, in the 66th year of his age, beloved and lamented by all who knew him.-To intellectual powers of an uncommon order, and an untiring industry, he added the virtues of a Christian and the manners of an accomplished gentleman. The provision of the former constitution of North Carolina, excluding from judicial stations all but Protestants, was in his case regarded, from the universal respect in which he was held, as a dead letter. Yet the propriety of his acceptance of a seat upon the bench of the Supreme Court, in the face of it, has been much called in question; and some even of his most ardent friends disapproved of the step. He contributed effectually, at a subsequent period, to the abrogation of the constitutional provision referred to, an achievement that may be regarded, from the peculiar position which he occupied in relation to it, as the most interesting event of his life. GAU. After his return from his journey to Nubia, he was entrusted with the construction of a new church, as well as of other important buildings, at Paris.-Besides his work on the antiquities of Nubia previously mentioned, he published another, of like nature, on the ruins of Pompeii (1824). GAUDIN (duke of Gaeta) continued president of the Bank of France from 1820 till the month of April 1:34, when he resigned, not altogether voluntarily, to make room for M. d'Argout. Since then, he has lived in retirement at his seat in the neighbourhood of Paris. GAUNTLET. See Gantlope. GAUSS. Of late years the attention of this distinguished mathematician has been very much directed to the subject of terrestrial magnetism. His theory relating to it, together with the observations made by him in conjunction with Weber, have attracted in a considerable degree the notice of the scientific world. These observations are recorded in the "Resultaten aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins," published annually by Gauss 303 and Weber since the year 1839, as also in the Atlas des Erdmagnetismus" (Leip sic, 1840). Still more lately Gauss has been much occupied with the theory of geodesy, on which he purposes to publish a series of memoirs. The first of the series was inserted in the Göttingen Transactions for the year 1843. GAY-LUSSAC (Nicolas François) was born December 6th 1778, at St. Leonard, in the French department of the Haute Vienne. The discoveries made by him subsequent to the publication of the "Recherches physico-chimiques," mentioned in a former volume, are recorded for the most part in the "Annales de chimie," the "Annales de chimie et physique," and the "Bulletin de la société philomatique." In 1827, appeared his "Cours de physique, recueilli et publié par Grosselin,” and, in the following year, his "Cours de chimie professé à la faculté des sciences de Paris, contenant l'histoire des sels, la chimie végétale et animale, recueilli par une société de sténographes, et revu par Gaultier de Claubry," in two volumes.-M. GayLussac, besides being a member of the Academy of Sciences and of that of Medicine, has held a great number of honourable appointments. Among these were the professorships which he held at the Sorbonne (Faculty of Sciences), at the Jardin du Roi, and the Polytechnic School, together with a number of administrative offices, requiring a knowledge of chemical science. From 1831 to 1837, he was a member of the Chamber of Deputies; and in 1839, was created a peer of France. As a legislator, however, he has taken little or no part in the political contentions of the day, but has commonly spoken on all questions relating to public instruction, or the manufactures and commerce of the country. GAZETTEER.* To the list of gazetteers or geographical dictionaries mentioned in a previous volume, may be added M'Culloch's " Dictionary, geographical, statistical, and historical," a work of great research, and the general accuracy of which may be depended on. The articles relating to the United States have been extended and improved in the American edition. GELATINE.* The ultimate components of gelatine are 47.8 carbon, 7.9 hydrogen, 16.9 nitrogen, and 27.4 oxygen. GENEVA.* In 1838, the population of the city of Geneva was 28,003. It is surrounded by ramparts and bastions, constructed about the middle of the last century. These, however, are of little ser 304 GENEVA-GEODESY. vice as fortifications, the city being commanded by some adjacent heights, and are of use chiefly as promenades.-The academy, founded by Calvin, has faculties of jurisprudence, theology, natural science, and literature, and 39 salaried or honorary professors. It has attached to it a library of 40,000 volumes, including many valuable manuscripts. Geneva has also a college for classical education; a school preparatory for the academy; a school of manufactures, established in 1832; schools of watchmaking, drawing, music, &c.; and many private schools. Besides the institutions mentioned in a former volume, it has a society for the advancement of arts; societies of medicine and natural history, and other learned associations; lunatic and deaf and dumb asylums; and various other charitable institutions. There are a number of benefit societies; and a savings bank was established in 1816, which had in 1835 a capital of 5,136,171 florins. The main source of the prosperity of Geneva consists in its manufactures; the principal of which are watches, jewellery, musical boxes, and objects of taste in the fine arts. In 1834, there were 274 master, and 1332 working watchmakers; and 117 master, and 663 working jewellers. The number of watches annually made is estimated at upwards of 70,000; and of these at least 60,000 are of gold. In watchmaking and jewellery together, it is estimated that between 70,000 and 80,000 oz. of gold, and about 50,000 oz. of silver, are used annually. "The great advantage," according to Dr. Bowring, "which the Swiss possess, in competition with the watchmakers in England, is the low price at which they can produce the flat cylinder watches, which are at present much in request. The watches of English manufacture do not come into competition with those of Swiss production, which are used for different purposes, and by a different class of persons. Notwithstanding all the risks and charges, the sale of Swiss watches is large, and it has not really injured the English watchmaking trade. The English watches are far more solid in construction, fitter for service, especially in countries where no good watchmakers are to be found, as the Swiss watches require delicate treatment. English watches, therefore, are sold to the purchaser who can pay a high price; the Swiss watches supply the classes to whom a costly watch is inaccessible." The works or machinery of the watches are made principally at Fontainemelon and Beaucourt, in France. The unfinished work is called an ébauche, and is polished and perfected by the Genevese artisan. A committee of masterworkmen, with a syndic at their head, are appointed by the government to inspect every workshop, and the articles made in it, in order to guard against fraud in the substitution of metals not of the legal standard. It may be added that, in defiance of the strictest custom-house regulations, the watches and jewellery of Geneva are smuggled very extensively into France. * GENOA had, in 1838, a population of 97,621, exclusive of the garrison of 8000 men, and seamen belonging to the merchant service or royal navy, amounting to 9636 more, being a total of 115,257 persons.-It is the entrepôt of a large extent of country; and its commerce, though inferior to what it once was, is very considerable, and has latterly been increasing. The various duties and custom-house fees, formerly charged on the transit of goods through Genoa and the Sardinian territories, have recently been abolished, and the city made a free port, that is, a port where goods may be warehoused, and exported free of duty. Its chief commercial relations are with Great Britain, France, and the Austrian and Neapolitan states; but it has also an active intercourse with the Russian ports of the Black Sea, whence wheat, wool, and other articles are imported; the Levant; and Brazil, from which sugar, coffee, and other tropical productions are brought. Its trade is chiefly carried on under the national flag. In 1835, the value of the imports into the arrondissement of Genoa was £3,840,000 sterling; and of the exports, £2,520,000. Genoa has a royal college; a naval school, the first established in Italy; an excellent institution for the deaf and dumb; and a public library, with 50,000 volumes, and 1000 manuscripts. GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS. A band of 40 gentlemen, in England, are so called, whose office is to attend the king's person on occasions of solemnity. They were instituted by Henry VIII. GENTZ died on the 9th of June 1832. An edition of his "Select works" was published at Stutgard, in 1838-39, and another at Manheim, in 1839, in 2 vols. GEODESY denotes that branch of practical geometry which has for its object the determination of the figure and magnitude of the earth, or of any considerable portion of its surface; or, in other words, it is sur veying, as this term is used by the mathematician, on a large scale. It compre hends all the geometrical or trigonometrical GEODESY-GEOLOGY. operations that are necessary for constructing a map of a country, measuring the lengths of degrees, &c. GEOGRAPHY.* Perhaps the best geographical treatise which has appeared, since the publication of the article Geography in a previous volume of this work, is that by Mr. J. R. M'Culloch, already mentioned under the head of Gazetteer in this supplement, GEOLOGY. In a former article (vol. v. page 423) a succinct sketch of the leading doctrines of this science was given; the main differences of the prominent hypotheses of the day pointed out; and the following summary drawn: "That all writers agree in this, that there are evident marks of at least three distinct revolutions or changes, which have been coëxtensive with the surface of the earth, and which occurred previously to the earth's assuming its present form, by which the order of things was wholly changed." Since the publication of these views, another theory, merely alluded to by the writer, has rapidly gained ground, and requires due notice; this is the hypothesis of Mr. Lyell, that the changes in the crust of the earth are referable to causes which are still in operation, and hence that all theories founded on a supposition that the ancient revolutions were dependent on operations different in nature and effect from those now existing, are erroneous. Mr. Lyell at tempts to show that the surface of the earth has undergone constant changes; that mountains have been elevated or depressed; that valleys have been formed, have been filled up, and have again been excavated; that seas have existed where dry land existed, which in turn has been covered with water; and yet, that amidst all these changes, and those of climate resulting from these revolutions, there has been an uninterrupted succession of animal and vegetable existences. He goes still further, and states that all this has been accomplished by the operation of the laws now governing the universe; and that various tribes of organized beings have been continued by the appearance, from time to time, of species fitted for the new order of things, and not by any change or transmutation of them. This theory is supported by much cogent reasoning, and by an assemblage of a multitude of facts admitting of no other explanation. But there has been a disinclination to embrace it, arising from several causes, one of which has operated powerfully with some writers, viz., the vast extent of time anterior to the creation of man required to effect the VOL. XIV.-39 305 changes now presented by the crust of the earth. Of course, to those geologists who adhere to the Mosaic days of creation, as periods of twenty-four hours, it is wholly rejected, as irreconcilable with Scripture; and even among those who deem it impossible to assign a limit to that lapse of years, during which the Omnipotent Creator was pleased to exert his power, it has been objected to as leading to a supposition that the present state of the world has gone on from all eternity;-an idea which is emphatically disclaimed by Mr. Lyell, and which the whole scope of his theory tends to disprove.-All rocks are considered as belonging to four great classes, as regards their origin. The first two agree with those already noticed, viz., the aqueous or stratified, and the volcanic; the two others are the plutonic and the metamorphic. The first of these, including the granites and porphyries, are supposed to be equally of igneous origin with the volcanic, but to have been formed under enormous pressure, and at great depths below the surface, owing to which they differ from lavas cooling near or at the superficies: the latter, or stratified crystalline rocks, are stated to have been originally deposited by water, but at an after period so altered by subterranean heat, as to become changed in their texture; this class includes part of the primary and the transition rocks of the Wernerians. These classes of rocks are produced contemporaneously, and may now be in the progress of formation; or, in other words, it is asserted, that the rocks considered by geologists as primitive, from their position, and the absence of all organic remains, are not older than the rocks that overlie them, and may, in some cases, be of more recent origin, as the lower parts of the crust of the earth may be modified and changed by the action of internal causes, without altering the superincumbent formations. These views differ so essentially from those hitherto held by all geologists, and still maintained by many of them, that it is necessary to enter into a fuller explanation of them. According to Mr. L.'s view, the crust of the earth has been continually undergoing changes, both above and beneath, from the successive action of fire and water; or, from times indefinitely remote, all the classes of rocks were in the process of formation or the reverse, and hence are of contemporaneous origin, though portions of each class are of course older than others. In other words, there may be primary, secondary, and tertiary formations in them all.-There are three principal tests by which the relative age of |