ance and steam-passage.

8th. The influence of the back pressure in the cylinder resisting the stroke of the piston.

9th. The influence of the pressure required to work the engine per se.

10th. The difference of dynamic effect due to an equal weight of steam used at the average cylinder pressure and at the boiler pressure.

To which Mr. Dickerson replies: Now, each and all of these statements are either false or do not affect the economy of expansion any more than the economy of non-expansion.

1st. The first one is false. Expanded steam increases its pressure-not diminishes it-in a higher ratio than the volume increases; and this is the discovery of

Regnault.

2d. The second one is false, no such condensation occurs; but if it did, there would be no difference of practical consequence between expansion and nonexpansion.

3d. The third one is of itself immaterial, and not ad

verse to expansion.

4th. The steam does not condense by expansion in an engine, as Regnault shows.

5th. The loss by external radiation from the cylinder is too insignificant to mention, but Isherwood says of it that "the radiation from the exterior surface of the cylinder and the condensation by the interior sur faces will be about the same," whether expansion or non-expansion is used.

6th. No such effect is produced-no "water is deposited on the interior surface of the cylinder," and of course none is re-evaporated

7th. The total loss of power by clearance is perfectly calculable, but is less with expansion than without it, although it is a greater percentage of the total power with expansion than without it.

8th and 9th. The answer is that the back pressure and friction are just like all other resistances which oppose the steam in its effort to drive down the piston -just such resistance as the friction of the boat going through the water, or of the mill-stone which grinds the grain-and by whatever means any of these resistances are overcome with less steam than otherwise would be needed, by that same means all of these resistances are overcome more economically.

But "back pressure" is diminished by increasing expansion-that is to say, a lower" vacuum" is produced by cutting off short than by following full stroke --and therefore, in respect to this item, there is a re

duction of resistance to be overcome, effected by the very act of economizing the means by which it is to be overcome.

10th. I trust I shall not be considered intensely ig norant when I confess that I don't understand what this means either philologically or scientifically considered.

A

SUEZ, CANAL OF. The project of a ship canal across the Isthmus of Suez, for which M. de Lesseps, a Frenchman, has received the concession from the Pasha of Egypt, is not only of the utmost importance for the commercial world, but has, of late, also led to some political complications. According to the plan of M. de Lesseps a canal was to be dug, ninety miles long, three hundred and thirty feet wide at the water line, and sloping at the sides down to the bottom, which was to be twenty feet below low-water level in the Mediterranean. sluice-lock, three hundred and thirty feet long, by seventy wide, was to be formed at each end; and by taking advantage of the rise of the tides at Suez, it was expected, or hoped, that an additional depth of three or four feet might be obtained. The more formidable portions of the work would be two artificial harbors, necessary to be constructed at the ends of the canal; seeing that no ship could enter it from the sea except through a harbor protected at all times from sands and shoals. At Suez, the piers would have to be carried out to the length of three miles, in order to inclose a harbor deep enough for such a purpose, and would have to pass through shifting sand; but still the stone to construct them is near at hand, and the difficulties are only such as engineers are accustomed to deal with. At the Mediterranean end of the canal, however, near Tyneh or Pelusium, the indispensable harbor would be much more difficult of construction, and much more costly. The Nile annually pours out thirteen million cubic yards of sand and mud into the Mediterranean, beside that which is deposited on the land of the Delta, or Lower Egypt. These thirty million cubic yards are borne by a current directly toward the shore of the Mediterranean near the region of Tyneh, making the sea at that spot shallower and shallower every year, full of shifting mud banks and sand banks. The English, in general, showed a great opposition to the plan, and the French naturally attributed this to political reasons. After seven years of discussion, the matter was taken up, in 1855, somewhat in an international spirit. The nations that would be most benefited commercially by the opening of a canal across the isthmus-France, England, Austria, Prussia, and Holland-were invited by the pasha to send out a joint commission of civil engineers, to test the plans of Lesseps and Talabot, and to report upon the feasibility of the whole project. After they had made their report, a larger commission, appointed by the pasha, devoted the greater part of 1856 to a consideration of the matter. The commission came to the conclusion that a canal, differing in certain points from Lesseps' plan, could be

TELEGRAPH. The construction of a telegraph around the earth made a considerable progress during the year. Grants and privileges were made by the Russian and British Governments, which are highly favorable to this object. Through an arrangement with Mr. Perry McD. Collins, the Russian Government undertakes to construct a line of telegraph from St. Petersburg to the mouth of the Amoor river, in Eastern Asia, a distance of about seven thousand miles; and it has already built the line as far as Irrutsk, on Lake Baikal, nearly three fourths of the distance. Mr. Collins and his associates then take up the line at the mouth of the Amoor river, and continue it by way of Behring's strait, until it shall intersect at some point between Chicago and the Pacific coast, the present lines. The Russian Government grants the exclusive privilege for 33 years for the construction of this line through its territory on the northwest coast. The British Government has proceeded with great liberality relative to its territory, known as British Columbia. Where the line crosses Behring's strait is about 66°N. latitude. From the Russian line others will soon stretch into India and China, and other parts of Asia. A line from San Francisco already extends some distance north on the Pacific coast. TENNESSEE. After the retreat of General Bragg from Murfreesboro' in July, Western and Middle Tennessee were entirely under the control of the Federal army. The advance of Gen. Burnside into East Tennessee was followed by a defeat of the Confederate force, and a reduction of their strength in that part of the State. (See ARMY OPERATIONS.) The subject of a restoration of the State to the Union was considerably discussed, and some conventions were held, one of which assembled at Nashville on the 1st of July. The military governor expressed a willingness to issue writs of election whenever the people in a suitable manner manifested their willingness and solicitude to choose legislators and commence in good faith the work of re-organization. The guerilla system prevailed so extensively that it furnished the greatest obstacle to this object. The State was exempted from the operation of the emancipation proclamation, and upon its reorganization an effort will probably be made to remove slavery. The views of Gov. Johnson were thus expressed in a public speech made in September:

Tennessee is not out of the Union, never has been and never will be out. The bonds of the Constitution and the Federal power will always prevent that. This Government is perpetual; provision is made for reforming the Government and amending the Constitution, and admitting States into the Union; not for letting them out of it.

*

Where are we now? There is a rebellion; this was anticipated, as I said. The rebel army is driven back. Here lies your State; a sick man in his bed, emaciated and exhausted, paralyzed in all his powers and unable

to walk alone. The physician comes. Don't quand about antecedents, but administer to his wants and sends an agent or a military governor, whichever ya cure him as quickly as possible. The United num please to call him, to aid you in restoring your gevirs ment. Whenever you desire, in good faith, to rest de civil authority, you can do so, and a proclamation an election will be issued as speedily as it is practicate government will be set in motion. A legislature wi to hold one. One by one all the agencies of you "CATE be elected. Judges will be appointed temperar 1, until you can elect them at the polls; and so of ster f county court judges, justices and other officers, m of civil government resume their ordinary fanctees the way is fairly open for the people, and all the parts This is no nice intricate metaphysical question. It a a plain, common sense matter, and there is nothing in the way but obstinacy.

The provisional organization previously created by the President continued througton the year, and on the 26th of January est, Governor Johnson issued his proclamation tie a State election. About twenty-five then al of the citizens of the State entered the Una army, and several colored regiments were also organized. The desolations of the State consequence of the war were without a parallel, especially in East Tennessee.

TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. These are Arizona, Colorado, Da kota, Idaho, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mex on, Utah, and Washington. These vast datrits have attracted considerable attention dung the year, in consequence of the mineral weath of several of them. Large numbers of pers have emigrated thither, and mining has beca commenced on an extensive scale. For the details of their area, population, and civil cepatizations, the reader is referred to the Ass CYCLOPEDIA, 1862.

TEXAS. Gov. Lubbock of Texas, in ha message to the Legislature on the 3d of Febreary said that the State had contributed $8.50 men to the Confederate armies, or 4.773 in excess of her highest popular vote. He then es timated the number of men remaining in the State between the ages of 16 and 60, at only 27,000. In his message in November following, he states that the number of soldiers firnished by Texas had at that time reached the aggregate of 90,000. According to this estimate only 5,500 men were left between the ages of 16 and 60. In the latter message the gover discussed the situation of the Confederacy and the State at great length. With regard to the loss of Vicksburg and Port Hudson he makes the novel observation that those places cost the North a great deal more than they were wer and thinks that the Confederacy could af to fortify and lose several other places on the same terms. He denounced the system of exemptions and substitutes, and maintained that every man in the State, including aliens strad be forced into the army. He reported tha revenues for the year to August 31st, at $

468,061 including a balance of $36,866. The expenditures were the same, with a balance of $15,819. Up to the same date the public works at the Texas Penitentiary had turned out 2,258660 yards of cotton goods and 293,298 yards of woollens, of which the larger part had been distributed among the army. The State foundry had not been successful in the manufacture of cannon. Large quantities of percussion caps had, however, been made in the State. The governor recommended the appropriation of at least $1,000,000 (to be based on cotton bonds, or that cotton be purchased and paid for in bonds, to supply the State with arms and munitions of war. He declared himself opposed to any peace which did not recognize the independence of the Confederate States. He regards reconstruction" as intolerable on any terms, and would admit no State into the Confederacy whose laws did not recognize and protect slavery.

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The tyrannical conduct of the rebel authorities in impressing men and seizing provisions produced great dissatisfaction throughout the State, alike among the soldiers and the people. Two serious riots occurred at Galveston. In one case, the troops, being short of rations, turned their guns on the town and compelled the commandant to give them what they wanted. In the other instance, the troops paraded the streets in a body, took the poor rations that had been issued in the morning and burned them in the public square, and demanded fresh and better ones, which were accordingly furnished. Desertions were numerous-sometimes as many as 50 or 60 a day. About 2,000 deserters had fortified themselves near the Red River, and defied the Confederacy. At last accounts they had been established at that rendezvous for eight months, and were constantly receiving accessions of discontented rebels and desperadoes.

The following were reported to be the prices of some articles in the State, in rebel money: corn meal, $10 a bushel; flour, $2 per lb.; coffee, $20 per lb.; sugar, $1 per lb.; butter, $3 per lb.; eggs, $4 a dozen; calf boots, from $150 to $175 per pair.

Blockade running via Nassau was brisk during the year. It was principally done by schooners, to and from the Brazos river, taking out cotton and bringing back materials of war, provisions and selected goods. Ten schooners with cotton were counted at one time in the Brazos river waiting a chance to get out. The enemy established a signal corps all along the Texas coast, in expectation of the arrival of a fleet of iron or steelclad blockade runners from Europe; but they did not come. The Anglorebel steamer, Sir Wm. Peel, with over 900 bales of cotton was captured by the sloop of war Seminole, as she was running out. She had taken to Matamoras a cargo of arms and ammunition contributed by the Southern Association in Europe; and it was believed that after landing her cotton at Nassau or Havana,

she was to be converted into a privateer. Her crew consisted of 50 men, some of whom belonged to the British navy.

The Legislature generally sustained the rebel cause during the year, but refused to pass a resolution recommending Congress to declare the Confederate notes a legal tender.

At the fall election Pendleton Murray was chosen governor. He is a native of Alabama, a lawyer by profession, and said to be intensely devoted to the Confederate cause.

THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE, an English author, born in Calcutta in 1811, died in London, December 24th, 1863. In early childhood he lost his father, a civil officer in the service of the East India Company, and when about seven years of age was carried to England. A vivid recollection of the country of his birth remained with him through life, and traits and reminiscences of Anglo-Indian society often occur in his novels. In London he was sent to the Charter-house school, and thence went to the University of Cambridge, which, however, he left without taking a degree. Inheriting upon coming of age a property of about £20,000, he went abroad with the idea of making art his profession, and for several years pursued his studies and travels in Germany, France, and Italy. He finally decided that literature rather than art was his proper vocation, and that the latter, if followed at all, should be made subordinate to his literary labors. The loss of a considerable portion of his property by unlucky speculations induced him to rely upon his pen for support, and returning to England, at the age of twenty-five, or thereabouts, he commenced the long struggle toward fame and publicity, which was at the last crowned with success.

His first essays were in the London "Times," and were on subjects connected with art and general literature. He then became a regular contributor to "Fraser's Magazine," under the pseudonymes of Michael Angelo Titmarsh and George Fitz-Boodle, Esq., and produced a variety of tales, criticisms, descriptive sketches and verses, which, though lively, and often showing originality of thought and direction, had more in them of the trifler than the worker with a purpose. Then came travelling sketches of men and manners, of which the "Paris Sketch Book" (2 vols., 1840) was his earliest separate publication, followed by the "Irish Sketch Book," and an amusing and highly characteristic account of a voyage to the East, entitled "From Cornhill to Cairo." During this period of gradually growing reputation, his hand could be frequently traced in the pages of Fraser, where his "Men's Wives," his

Yellow-plush Papers," his "Shabby-Genteel Story," his "Great Hoggarty Diamond," and his "Luck of Barry Lyndon," successively appeared. None of these obtained popularity, though the last is one of the most vigorous and dramatic tales in English literature. They are all marked by an exaggerated humor for