troops under the command of Sir Walter Raleigh. Hatred of Spain had become a principle in the minds of Englishmen, and their attempt on Ireland was mercilessly put down. More active than soldiers were the Jesuit missionaries, who, in 1580, were sent to England to revive the spirits of the Catholics. With unflinching boldness and great dexterity they travelled about England, and organised the Catholic party. Chief of these Jesuits was Campian, who was taken prisoner and put to death for conspiring against the queen. The Catholics were severely persecuted, and the Protestant spirit of England was quickened by perpetual suspicion. A plot to assassinate Elizabeth, of which Francis Throgmorton was the chief agent, was discovered in 1584, and again the Spanish ambassador was ordered to quit England. The sentiment of loyalty to the person of Elizabeth grew strong among the people, and a voluntary association was formed for her defence. Its members undertook to prosecute to death all who should attempt the queen's life, or in whose behalf such attempts should be made. This was a threat against Mary, whose death was thus sure to follow immediately on the assassination of Elizabeth.

Meanwhile, the hostility between England and Spain was becoming more and more apparent. France, under the pressure of the religious wars, had admitted Spanish influence, and had withdrawn all appearance of help from the Netherlands. Elizabeth found it wise to send help to the Netherlands, but she sent as little as she could. She never believed that they would make good their stand against the Spanish power, but with a niggardly hand she helped them to prolong their struggle. In the end of 1585 the Earl of Leicester was sent to Holland with English troops. Leicester did little more than besiege Zutphen, and Elizabeth negotiated with Spain, and was ready to betray the Netherlands if thereby she could have secured peace. Philip II., however, was irritated against England, both on account of the help sent to the Netherlands, and still more on account of the damage done to Spanish trade in the West Indies by the piratical raids of Sir Francis Drake. A Spanish invasion of England was imminent, and plots against Elizabeth's life were resolutely carried on. At the end of 1586, a plot, contrived by Antony Babington, was discovered by the Secretary, Sir Francis Walsingham. He allowed it to proceed till he had obtained evidence which implicated Mary of Scotland. Then Babington was executed, and a commission was appointed to try Mary, who was found guilty. For a long time Elizabeth hesitated to put Mary to death. At last she signed the warrant, but gave no orders that it should be carried into effect. Mary was beheaded in February, 1587, and Elizabeth professed that it was done without her knowledge. She tried with characteristic

duplicity to rid herself of personal responsibility, but England rejoiced that it was rid of one who was such a fertile source of danger and disturbance.

Mary's death brought the Spanish invasion nearer. So long as Mary lived, Philip II. was bound to fight in her name; on her death he put forward his own claim to the English crown. A raid of Drake on Cadiz, in April, 1587, stirred Philip II. to greater indignation. In May, 1588, a large fleet, known as "the Invincible Armada," set sail for England. Its huge ships were ill-suited to the task. The preparations for a junction with ships from the Netherlands failed. The Armada was thrown into disorder by the smaller and swifter craft of the English. A storm completed its discomfiture, and England was saved from a landing on its shores. During the days of peril Elizabeth showed great courage, and addressed in stirring words the volunteers who gathered at Tilbury. She was personally brave, and knew how to deal with her people. The defeat of the Armada gave an impulse to English seamanship, which had been growing rapidly during Elizabeth's reign. Then for the first time the English showed those qualities which have secured for them the mastery of the sea. An aggressive war against Spain was rapidly planned, and the Portuguese were urged to revolt from Philip II. In 1589 an expedition was undertaken against Lisbon, which failed in its main object, but convinced the English that Spain was not such a formidable foe as they had thought. From this time English privateers cruised the Spanish main and crippled the Spanish trade. Sir Walter Raleigh was energetic in urging schemes of colonisation in opposition to Spain. In 1584 he colonised Virginia, which he called after the Virgin Queen. In 1592 he penetrated to the Isthmus of Darien, and in 1595 to Guiana. Though little was done at the time, the way was prepared for future efforts.

Spain was beaten back both in France and in the Netherlands, and Elizabeth, in her old age, was inclined to peace. But the martial ardour of England was aroused, and the Earl of Essex was eager to distinguish himself. In 1596 an expedition was made against Cadiz, which was sacked by Essex. Next year he and Raleigh set out on what was known as "The Island Voyage," which was a failure, owing to quarrels between the two commanders. Elizabeth and Burleigh were more and more desirous for peace. But troubles broke out in Ireland, where Hugh O'Neil, Earl of Tyrone, gathered together the tribes of Ulster, and surprised the Fort of Blackwater. Ireland, Elizabeth found occupation for the energy of Essex, whose ambition was boundless and whose popularity was great. But Essex, contrary to his orders, entered into negotiations with Tyrone, and concluded peace. When he returned to England in

In

1599, he was called to account for his conduct. He had many enemies, and was disgraced, being confined as a prisoner in his own house. At last, trusting to his popularity, he made a desperate rising, in the hopes of getting the queen into his hands. The people refused to follow him. He was taken prisoner, found guilty of high treason, and beheaded in February, 1601. Elizabeth sorely felt the necessity of putting Essex to death, and never quite recovered from her grief. As she grew old she missed the homage of her people. The expenses of the Irish war forced her to apply to Parliament for money, and Parliament attacked the royal grants of monopolies. Elizabeth gave way with good grace, and her last years saw the defeat of Tyrone's forces by Lord Mountjoy, in 1602. Elizabeth had a growing feeling of want of sympathy between herself and the new generation which she had fostered. Her last days were unhappy, and she died in March 23, 1603, after indicating the King of Scotland as her successor.

Elizabeth lived in perilous times, and the fortunes of England were curiously interwoven with her personal security. She found England discouraged, disunited, and poor; she left it with a strong national spirit, prosperous, and resolute. Her policy was shifty, but her means were scanty. She knew how to choose wise advisers, but she never entirely trusted them. She knew how to play upon human weakness, and she was better served at smaller cost than any other sovereign. England, in her reign, made great advances in every way, and then first assumed the chief characteristics which still distinguish it. Though many of Elizabeth's doings were unworthy, she never forgot the interests of her people, and she never lost their affection. It is her greatest praise that her objects were those of her people, and that England prospered under her rule.

Camden, Hist. of Elizabeth; Naunton, Frag menta Regalia; Sir John Harrington, Nuga Antiqua; Calendar of State Papers; Strype, Life of Parker; Froude, Hist. of Eng., Hallam, Const. Hist.; Green, Hist. of the English People; Wiesener, La Jeunesse d'Elizabeth d'Angleterre, trans. by Miss Yonge; Aikin, Court of Queen Elizabeth. [M. C.]

Elizabeth Woodville, QUEEN, wife of Edward IV. (b. circa 1431, d. 1492), was the daughter of Sir Richard Woodville (afterwards Earl Rivers) by Jacquetta of Luxemburg, widow of John, Duke of Bedford. She married first, about 1452, Sir John Grey, son and heir of Lord Ferrers of Groby. He died in 1461, leaving her with two sons, Thomas, afterwards Marquis of Dorset, and Richard. Woodvilles and the Greys were alike strong partisans of the Lancastrian cause, and on the accession of Edward IV. the widow of Sir John Grey was deprived of her inheritance, and obliged to remain at her father's house at Grafton in Northamptonshire. Here she made the acquaintance of Edward IV., who

The

She

privately married her in 1464. During this period of Lancastrian supremacy, on the flight of Edward IV. and the restoration of Henry VI., Elizabeth took refuge in sanctuary, and here her son Edward was born. On the death of her husband she had once more to take sanctuary, being alarmed by the measures taken by Richard against her family. remained in sanctuary with her daughters till after the failure of Buckingham's insurrection (in which she was implicated), when, in 1484, she was induced to leave her retreat, and went, with her remaining children, to Richard. There can be little doubt that she connived at Richard's scheme for marrying her eldest daughter Elizabeth, and that she had lost all hopes in Richmond; but this plan Richard was obliged to give up, and after the battle of Bosworth Elizabeth gladly wedded her daughter to the victor Henry. For the remaining years of her life she lived in peace, though apparently on no very good terms with her son-in-law.

Elizabeth of York, QUEEN, wife of Henry VII. (b. 1465, d. 1503), was the daughter of Edward IV. and Elizabeth Woodville. After being almost betrothed to Richard III. she was married to Henry VII., somewhat against her will, it would appear. She took little part in public affairs, and appears to have been treated with some coldness by her husband.

Ella (ELLE) (d. 517) was the founder of the kingdom of Sussex. He is said to have come (in 477) with his three sons, Cymen, Whencing, and Cissa to Cymenesora, which is identified by Lappenberg with Keynor in Selsea. He fought a great battle with the Britons, the issue of which was doubtful. Having obtained reinforcements, Ella captured the great fortress of Anderida (q.v.), and entirely destroyed the British power in Sussex. He is reckoned by Bede as the first Bretwalda, but this is extremely doubtful if we consider the narrow compass of the Germanic possessions in Britain at that time, and the fact that there is no mention of a second Bretwalda for nearly a century. It is curious that we have no genealogy of Ella as we have of all the other founders of the English kingdoms in Britain. Ella is said to have reigned forty years, and to have been succeeded by his son Čissa. [BRETWALDA.]

Bede, Hist. Ecclesiast. Anglor.; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Ellandune, THE BATTLE OF (823), was fought between the Mercians, under Beornwulf, and the West Saxons, under Egbert, and resulted in a total rout of the former. It has been identified with Allington, near Amesbury, in Wiltshire.

Elmet was the name of a little British kingdom situated between Leeds and York, which retained its independence till it was

conquered by Edwin, and annexed to Northumbria about 625.

Elmham, THOMAS OF (d. circa 1426), was a monk of St Augustine's, Canterbury, and afterwards Prior of Leyton, in Nottinghamshire. He wrote a Life of Henry V., and a History of the Monastery of St. Augustine's from 596 to 1191. Both these works have been printed in the Rolls Series.

He

Elphinstone, MOUNTSTUART (b. 1779, d. 1859), was sent to India as a writer in 1795. In 1801 he was appointed assistant to the Resident at Poonah. He was present at Assye. After the war he became British Resident at Nagpore. In 1807 he was sent on a mission to Cabul. In 1810, on his return, he was appointed Resident at Poonah. fought the battle of Kirkee in 1817, when Bajee Rao attacked the British Residency. In 1818 he was appointed Commissioner of the Poonah territory; and he became Governor of Bombay in 1819. In 1827 he returned to England. In 1834 he was offered the Governor-Generalship, but refused. The rest of his life was uneventful, and he died peacefully in his eightieth year.

Kaye, Indian Officers; Elphinstone's Memoirs (1884).

Ely, THE ISLE OF, was originally an oasis in the midst of the marshes of Cambridgeshire and the fen land. It owes its chief fame to the great abbey which was founded there by St. Etheldreda in 673. In 970 it was refounded by Ethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, and settled with Benedictines, having been, a hundred years previously, destroyed by the Danes. It was here that Hereward formed his Court of Refuge, which in 1071 was taken by William the Conqueror. 1108 Ely was made the seat of a bishopric by Henry I. After the battle of Evesham and the surrender of Kenilworth, some of the barons escaped to Ely, but their stronghold was taken by Prince Edward in 1267.

In

Emancipation, CATHOLIC. [CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION.]

Emancipation, NEGRO. [SLAVE TRADE.] Emigration, in its restricted sense, is used for the departure of persons from a country with a highly organised society and thick population to settle in one with abundance of uncultivated soil. The word is opposed, nevertheless, to colonisation, which implies rather the first settlement in a new land, whereas emigration signifies that the country of which it is the object has already made some advance in civilisation. Hence emigration in its proper sense cannot be said to have systematically begun in England previous to 1815, on the termination of the great war with the French Empire. In that year the number of emigrants was only 2,081; in the

following year it had increased to 12,510, and it was 34,987 in 1819. The average annual number of those who emigrated in the ten years from 1825 to 1834 was 50,304; from 1835 to 1844 it was 75,923, thus showing a steady rise, though there was a drop during the first half of the latter decade. During the five years ending 1853 the average rose as high as 323,002, an exceptional rate, probably due to such extraordinary causes as the Irish famine, the gold discoveries in Australia and California, and the development of the resources of America through the adoption of free trade in England. The average sank to nearly a half during the Crimean War, and in 1860, when the struggle between the Northern and Southern States was raging, the total was only 91,770. In 1870 it was 256,940; in 1879 it was 217,163, and 332,294 in 1880, the increase being chiefly of Irish emigrants, and their destination the United States. The countries to which our emigration is chiefly directed are British North America, the United States, and Australia. The first of these was in favour until 1835, after which the outbreak of the Canadian rebellion, the preference of the enormously increasing number of Irish emigrants for American institutions, together with other and more general causes, turned the scale; nor is it to be anticipated that the recent development of agriculture in Manitoba will be able to equalise numbers which in 1881 were respectively 176,104 and 23,912. It should be observed that the Scotch emigrate less readily than the other inhabitants of the British Isles; the numbers in 1880 were 111,845 English, 93,641 Irish, and 22,056 Scotch, and there were also 100,369 foreigners, chiefly Germans, who sailed from British ports. The fact that emigration was pioneered by the movements of whole communities driven forth by religious persecution, and bound for unknown and uncivilised lands, is the main cause of the tendency of earlier emigration to base itself on organised schemes. Thus Wakefield's scheme of combined emigration had its prototypes in the Pilgrim Fathers, and afterwards in the ill-fated Darien expedition. Now, however, the settled condition of the United States and of our colonies renders

such precautions unnecessary, except, as in the case of Mr. Tuke's recent plan, when dealing with a pauperised and helpless class like the Western Irish. All that need be done is to provide for the safe and cheap transit and reception of individuals. This first responsibility was placed in 1831 in the hands of the Emigration Commission, part of whose duties was to distribute useful information, and has since been transferred to the Board of Trade. It was regulated by law in various Passengers Acts providing for the comfort and protection of emigrants, the first of which was passed in 1835, and those now in force in 1855 and 1863. The welfare of settlers is watched over in the colonies by government

immigration agents, who are bound to supply all information free of cost, and this system is carried to great perfection in the States. It is necessary to discuss here the economical aspects of State emigration. It has been frequently adopted as a relief for pauperism, notably by the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834, and the Irish Land Act of 1880. On the other side, the colonies have offered unusual and artificial advantages in order to secure manual labour: thus, New South Wales about 1830 started a bounty system, by which contractors who introduced immigrants received so much per head; and part of the proceeds of the crown lands in the colonies, especially in Australia and New Zealand, is applied by the Land and Emigration Board (a department of the Colonial Office, established in 1849) to the introduction of labourers. The upset price of land is also placed as low as possible. There is another and darker side of the emigration question, namely, the introduction into our colonies of inferior races, such as the Chinese and Hindoos, which will have to be faced in the immediate future.

Wakefield, Art of Colonisation; Sir G. C. Lewis, Government of Dependencies; Goldwin Smith, The Empire; Knight, Political Cyclopædia. Sound statistical and general information can be obtained from the Statesman's Year

Book and the Colonial Office List. [L. C. S.]

Cut off

The

Empire, RELATIONS WITH THE. from the Roman Empire by the English Conquest, Britain began again to have dealings with the" world state," when Christianity and political consolidation had renewed civilisation and intercourse with the world. Mercian overlords of the eighth century corresponded on equal terms with the great house that was soon to restore the glory of the Cæsars. Charles the Great's jealousy of Offa led to his support of the exiled Egbert of Wessex, whose accession to the West Saxon throne must have strengthened the relations of the two powers, and who may have found in the Carolingian Empire a model for imitation. The presence of learned men like Alcuin in Charles's court had a similar tendency. The correspondence of Ethelwulf with Louis the Pious, whose granddaughter he afterwards married, kept up the connection. Athelstan's sister's marriage to Charles the Simple, and his support of Louis "Ultramarinus," continued the dealings with the Carolingian house, even when empire had almost stepped from it. English dealings with the Saxon Emperors were still more intimate. Henry the Fowler married his son Otto to Athelstan's sister, and Giesebracht points out the similarity of Henry's power in Germany and that of the West Saxon overlords in England, and even suggests conscious imitation. With the acquisition of the Imperial dignity, Otto aspired to a far higher power than his father. But if Henry copied Athelstan, the second coronation of Edgar at

Bath as " Emperor of Britain" suggests that that monarch aspired to rival Otto's crowning by John XII. The assumption of Imperial titles by the great early English kings shows that they aimed at least at absolute equality in dignity with the Emperors. It is remarkable that under such circumstances good relations were maintained. The innumerable coincidences of law and usage between England and the Empire, though in the main instances of parallel development rather than of influence, may in some cases illustrate the effects of this constant intercourse. The Norman Conquest allied England with the Papacy, but the continuity of the national tradition soon tended to re-unite English king and Roman Emperor in a common hostility to the Hildebrandine Papacy. William I. and Henry I.'s contest with Anselm is the English reflection of the Investiture Contest. But the superior prudence of the English monarchs avoided that direct breach with the Church which was, perhaps, inevitable in Germany. Even marriage alliances, such as that between Matilda and Henry V., did not result in joining England with the Empire in its extreme measures, but rather led to the Concordat of Worms, which the agreement between Henry and Anselm had anticipated. With Henry II. begins another period of still closer relations. Henceforth the Imperial alliance becomes one of the permanent traditions of our mediæval foreign policy. Henry married his daughter to Henry the Lion, and instituted close friendship with the Guelfic house without impairing his friendly relations with the rival Hohenstaufen on the Imperial throne. In fact, Frederick Barbarossa's contest with Alexander III. necessarily produced close relations with Henry, engaged in his struggle with Becket. Only the prudence of his advisers prevented Henry being bound by his ambassadors to support Barbarossa's schismatic Pope. The Third Crusade was entered into by Frederick as by Richard I., although the English monarch had given a home to his nephew Otto after the fall of Henry the Lion had driven him from Germany. Hence the jealousy of the Emperor Henry VI., Richard's captivity on his return, and humiliating surrender of the Imperial crown of Britain to the German Emperor. Henceforth, hostility to the Hohenstaufen Emperors became the great principle of Richard and John's foreign policy. But the battle of Bouvines put an end to the hopes of the Guelfic line, and the house opposed to England became undisputed Emperors. Gradually the strong bonds of connection were renewed, and the sister of Henry III. became the bride of Frederick II. All England watched with keen interest that Emperor's struggle with the Papacy, though Henry himself was too much bound by his papal connection and personal religious scruples to give him any help. But so long as his nephew remained alive as Frederick's

heir, Henry refused to join in the papal His crusade against the Hohenstaufen. acceptance of the Sicilian throne for Edmund of Lancaster was only when his sister's son was dead. But the great connection between England and the Empire in this reign is the election of Richard of Cornwall, Henry's brother, as King of the Romans. Though never master of Germany, Richard was yet the most powerful of the claimants during the Great Interregnum. His influence led directly to the close commercial dealings between England and the Hansa. He obtained for his brother great privileges for the Steelyard, and imported Harz miners to work the tin mines of his Cornish earldom. But with the fall of the Hohenstaufen the glory of the Empire had departed; though in its weakness, as in its strength, it adhered to its English connection. Rudolf of Hapsburg had a scheme for renewing the middle kingdom in conjunction with Edward I. Adolf of Nassau served as a hireling in the army of that same monarch; Louis of Bavaria was closely allied with Edward III. They married sisters, and had in the French king and the Avignon Popes common objects of hostility. At Coblenz, in 1338, Louis made Edward

Imperial Vicar. But the quarrel for the Hainault succession broke up a friendship which Louis' weakness made unprofitable to England. Even then he found in the Englishman, William of Ockham, a warm defender of his theoretical claims. The Luxemburg house now acquired the Empire, and their alliance with France brought a new coolness between England and the Empire, that was not fully ended till Richard II. married Wenzel's sister, Anne of Bohemia. [BOHEMIA, RELATIONS WITH.] The friendship of Sigismund and Henry V., their common religious and European policy, was a fitting crown to the medieval dealings of England and the Empire; for after Sigismund's last assertion of the international power of the Empire at Constance, that splendid theory ceased to have any practical working. England continued the friend of the nominal Emperors, but it is with the rulers of hereditary dominions, not with the nominal Emperors, that these dealings really occurred. [BURGUNDY, RELATIONS WITH.] Charles V., who for a time aspired to a renewal of the Imperial power, inherited not only the Imperial, but the Burgundian and Spanish alliances of England, and was thus united to her by a triple bond. Even this was sundered by the Reformation, though the old Imperial alliance may be regarded as renewed in the dealings of England with the German Protestants. With the rise of Louis XIV.'s ascendency, the Anglo-Imperial alliance is renewed, and continued with few breaks till the end of the Empire in 1806. [AUSTRIA, RELATIONS WITH.]

Pauli, Englische Geschichte, brings out very clearly the general dealings of England and the

son

Empire in medieval times; Giesebracht's Die
Deutsche Kaiserzeit and Von Raumer's Geschichte
der Hohenstaufen may be referred to for more
detailed information.
[T. F. T.]

Empson, SIR RICHARD (d. 1510), was the of a tradesman at Towcester. He devoted himself to the law, and came under the notice of Henry VII., who employed him in public duties, and especially in financial affairs. Together with Dudley, Empson was the chief agent of the illegal or quasi-legal extortion of Henry's reign. He incurred great unpopularity in consequence, and was executed with Dudley at the beginning of the next reign. [DUDLEY.]

Enclosures. [COMMON LANDS.]

Engagement, THE, 1647, was a name given to a compact made at Newport, in the Isle of Wight, with the Scotch Commissioners, by which Charles I. engaged to support the Covenant and the Presbyterian party; the Covenanters, on the other hand, promising to assist him against the Parliament. [CHARLES I.]

Englefield, The Battle of (871), fought between the English, under the ealdorman Ethelwulf, and the Danes, resulted in the victory of the former-Sidroc, one of the Danish jarls, being slain. Englefield is a village in Berkshire, about six miles west of Reading.

English Conquest of Britain, THE. A close connection is discernible between the differing forms of Roman power in the island and the history of this great movement. From the cessation of that power in its temporal form sprang the conditions that gave it birth; with the introduction of the spiritual form it entered upon a new stage, whose beginning may be taken as marking not merely its complete success, but its virtual ending. As an historical landscape, therefore, it may be said to lie between the year 410, the date of the departure of the Roman officials, and 596, that of the arrival of St Augustine. But these dates enclose the darkest period of British history; next to nothing that is trustworthy has been recorded of the details of the Conquest; and notwithstanding the huge contributions that genius and scholarship have made to the subject of late years, the fraction of solid, or even probable, fact remains as meagre as ever. And our best authorities differ as widely as men can differ regarding the value and interpretation of the fragmentary and confused accounts that tradition preserved among the conquerors; between qualified acceptance and almost unqualified rejection our most masterly historical intellects are divided. An account of any exactitude is impossible.

When the authorities of the Empire parted with the trust of defending Britain, they left to the inhabitants their excellent military