among men, deriving their just powers from the consent. of the governed." After reciting in full the specific acts of the king, which were considered "injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states," the declaration proceeds to say: "In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms. Our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people." They concluded this wonderful document in these words: "We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonics, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." "For the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortune, and our sacred honor."

This declaration by congress was the beginning of the nation. It was not the work of states, as such; but of a congress composed of delegates from all the states. These delegates represented the people, and it was, therefore, the people themselves of these thirteen colonies who declared themselves independent of Great Britain. They were no longer colonies; from this moment they were states: so that it is true that the nation and the states began their existence at the same time. Whether this new nation could maintain its independ

ence, or whether it would fail, was the question now submitted to the arbitrament of war. They succeeded: their independence was acknowledged, and the national existence dates from this declaration.

CHAPTER X.

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.

No sooner had the congress determined upon independence, than it took measures to determine upon a form of union between the colonies, and the establishment of a definite plan for this union. On the 11th of June, 1776, the very day when the committee was appointed for drafting a declaration of independence, another committee was also appointed to draft a plan of government. A month later, and only eight days after the declaration of independence, this committee reported a plan for a confederacy which consisted of twenty articles called "articles of confederation." This draft was debated and amended at various times, but was not finally adopted by the congress, until Nov. 15, 1777, and then the articles did not go into effect until the following July. They were not submitted to the people of the several states, but were only ratified by the delegates in congress. The delegates from New Jersey did not ratify the articles until November, 1778; and the delegates from Delaware, not until November, 1779; while Maryland, which was the last to ratify, signed the articles March 1, 1781. During all this time the national government consisted solely of the continental congress, which comprised but one house, with no executive and no judiciary. Indeed, after the articles of confederation had been adopted, and had gone into

effect between the several states, the same continental congress continued its sessions, but now under the authority of the articles of confederation. These articles, in fact, made but very little difference in the management of affairs.

Meantime the continental congress and the several states, acting with vigor and energy, had prosecuted the war zealously. The articles of confederation united the thirteen states, under the style of The United States of America, into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their defence, and to secure their liberties and their mutual and general welfare; binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any pretence whatever. Not less than two nor more than seven delegates were to be chosen every year by each state to meet in congress, and, as heretofore, in deciding all questions, the votes were to be taken by states — each state having a single vote.

Congress should not engage in war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, enter into treaties or alliances, coin money or regulate its value, determine the sums necessary for the use of the United States, emit bills of credit, borrow money or appropriate money, designate the size of the army and navy, without the assent of nine states; nor could a question upon any other point, except adjournment from day to day, be determined unless by the votes of the majority of the states in congress.

Sheppard, in his Constitutional Text-Book says: "It was soon found that the plan detailed in the articles of