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ON THE MILITARY TOPOGRAPHY OF EUROPE.

[SECOND PAPER.]

PASSING next from France across the chain of the Jura, we come into Switzerland, a country noted for the mountainous character of its surface and the free spirit of its inhabitants, and one which, from these circumstances, might be supposed to be comparatively easy to be defended against an invading Situated, however, as it is, with the French and Austrian Empires for neighbors, there can be no doubt that it would long since have become the prey of one or both these powerful states, were it not for the jealousies entertained by them of each other, and the unwillingness of the other great Powers of Europe that they should be any further aggrandized.

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Projected, as it were, between Germany on the north and Italy on the south, Switzerland forms an important strategical position to a French army in any war which it may be appointed to carry on in the direction of either of those countries. the one hand, let such an army penetrate eastward as far as the eastern extremity of the Lake of Constance, and the defences of the southwestern portions of Germany will at once be turned and rendered comparatively useless; while on the other, commanding, as it would do, the passes over the Alps from Switzerland into the valley of the Po, it would effectually prevent the advance of an enemy's army through Italy to the fron` tier of France. The possession, indeed, of the Swiss mountains and valleys must first be assured to either belligerent before he can hope to make any permanent impression on the other in the surrounding regions. These general remarks are amply illustrated by the history of the campaigns of Suvarrow and Massena in 1799, and of Bonaparte and Melas in 1800, the latter terminating in the cutting off of the Austrian army of Italy from its base of operations, and forcing it to capitulate.

Mountainous as Switzerland is, its surface, with the exception of those parts which approach the nearest to the Alps and the Jura, may nevertheless be regarded as constituting a great basin, though not a plain, comprehended between these two chains. But, after what has already been said of the Jura, when treating of France, nothing further needs to be stated concerning it here. The Swiss Alps, extending from the frontiers of France to the Tyrol, are important, as has been already intimated, by the passes by which they are crossed from or into Italy. Of these the principal are the Great St. Bernard, the Simplon, the Splugen, the Bernardin, and the St. Gothard.

The first mentioned, between Piedmont and the Valais, has

It was

an elevation of 8150 feet above the level of the ocean. traversed by the Roman armies, by Charlemagne, and by Frederick Barbarossa, and in more modern times has been noted for the passage into Italy of the French army of reserve under the First Consul Bonaparte. The next, the Simplon, also between Piedmont and the Valais, is noted for the famous road constructed over it by the order of Napoleon, at the height of 6592 feet. The Splugen, between the Grisons and Lombardy, has its summit at an elevation of 6939 feet, and is 23 miles distant from the Lake of Como. The Bernardin is traversed by the route from Coire to Bellinzona, its elevation being 6970 feet. The pass of the St. Gothard is one of the best and most frequented routes across the Alps: the carriage-road was completed in 1832, and at the summit of the pass is 6976 feet high.

It may be added here that all these passes are much more precipitate on the side of Italy than on that of Switzerland.

The average height of the Swiss mountains is greater than that of the mountains in any other country of Europe. We subjoin that of some of the highest:-Combin, 14,125 feet; Matterhorn or Corvin, 14,837; Monte Rosa, 15,152; Monte Leone, 11,541; Stronbel, 10,978; Altelshorn, 12,182; Tschingelhorn, 11,705; Wildefrau, 12,140; Jungfrau, 13,778; Finsteraarhorn, 14,106; Eiger, 13,075; Schreckhorn, 13,386; Wetterhorn, 12,210; Furka, 14,037; Gallenstock, 12,481; Sustenhorn, 11,627; St. Gothard, 10,595; Ober Alpstock, 10,190; Schlosberg, 10,407; Scheerhorn, 10,865; Vogelsberg, 10,870; Bernardin, 10,135; Disgrazie, 12,000; Del Oro, 10,538; Julier, 13,855.

The principal rivers of Switzerland are the Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Aar, and the Limmat. The last mentioned is a tributary of the Aar, as this is one of the Rhine; and these two, with the Rhine, constitute three important lines of defence against an invading enemy.

Switzerland is famous for its lakes, situated in different parts of the country, such as the lakes of Geneva, Constance, Neufchatel, Zurich, Zug (of the Four Cantons), Thun, &c. These lakes contribute, with the rivers and mountain-systems of the country, to its defence, although, as has been previously stated, its security depends in a much greater measure on the mutual jealousies of the great European Powers.

Not satisfied, however, with depending for their protection from foreign aggression on a resource of this kind, even though the more powerful states have guaranteed their neutrality in the event of a war among themselves, the Swiss have taken perhaps more precautions, in proportion to the amount of their numbers, to be prepared for war in case of need, than any other Power. With a population (in 1860) of 2,534,242, the regular army is

quoted at 79,086 men, the reserve at 43,227, and the landwehr at 57,416, making a force of 179,729 men which can be rendered available on any emergency.

The military topography of Italy need not detain us long, notwithstanding the extent of its territory, and the frequency with which it has constituted the seat of war between contending nations, partly because of its peculiar shape,—its length being vastly greater than its breadth,-partly also on account of the facility with which its defences can be turned by an enemy descending from the Swiss Alps or the western portion of the Apennines; and again because, out of the immediate vicinity of the Alps and Apennines, the country is a level one, not presenting any remarkable field for the application of military strategy. Indeed, almost the only points of interest, besides the mountain-chains referred to, which it is worth our while to direct the attention of our readers to in this place, are the rivers and the most important fortresses that cover its surface.

The principal river to be mentioned here is the Po, which descends from a height of about 6500 feet (Mount Viso) in the rear of one of the affluents of the Durance. It flows through the north of Italy, and, after a course of three hundred and twenty miles, discharges itself into the Adriatic Sea. Its tributary streams are numerous, and some of them very important. Of these the most worthy of mention are: on the left, the Doria Riparia, passing by the fort of Bard, which had nearly arrested the march of the army of reserve under Bonaparte into Italy in 1800, and terminating on the Po at Turin; the Sesia, which descends from Monte Rosa and flows near Vercelli, a place noted in history for the defeat of the Cimbri by Marius; the Ticino, descending from the St. Gothard, and passing through the Lago Maggiore, discharges itself into the Po below Pavia, noted for the victory of Hannibal over the Romans in 218 B. C., and for that gained by the Spaniards over Francis I., King of France, in 1525; the Adda, which flows from the Tyrol through the Valteline and the Lake of Como, and passes by Lodi and Pizzighittone, both fortresses, and the former renowned for a victory of Bonaparte, in 1796, over the Austrians; the Oglio, coming, like the river just mentioned, from the Tyrol; and the Mincio, which, after issuing from the Tyrol, traverses the Lake of Garda, and proceeds by way of Peschiera and Mantua to the Po, and which, in latter times especially, has been the scene of many sanguinary and violent conflicts. The tributaries of the Po on its right, most worthy of mention, are the Tanaro and the Trebbia. Of these the former is joined by the Bormida at Alexandria, after this river has passed over the plain of Marengo, famous for the great victory of Bonaparte over the Austrian general Melas in 1800. The Trebbia, though only a small river, comparatively speaking,

has found a place in history as the scene of one of Hannibal's great victories over the Romans, and that of another victory, in 1799, of the Austro-Russian army, under Suvarrow, against the French, under Macdonald, one obstinately contested during three successive days.

The Adige, the Brenta, the Piave, the Tagliamento, and the Isonzo are the most important of the rivers which, in addition to the Po, discharge their waters into the Adriatic Sea; and the first mentioned of these is without doubt only second to the Po in military importance. It has on its banks the formidable fortresses or military camps of Peschiera, Verona, and Legnago, and affords a strong protection to the Austrian frontier on the side of Italy.

The Arno and the Tiber are the only other Italian rivers to be mentioned here; the former being the river of Tuscany, with the city of Florence upon its banks, and the latter associated in history with the undying name of Rome.

To the fortresses which have been already mentioned, we may add those of Turin, Genoa, Mantua, and Gaeta. Alessandria, constructed to serve as the bulwark of Italy, is now reduced to its citadel.

The population of the kingdom of Italy has been recently stated to amount to 21,728,529; and the effective force of the army, on the 10th of June, 1861, to have been 327,290 men.

The kingdom of Belgium is a level country, furnishing in general every facility for hostile armies to operate in. The principal rivers are the Scheld, the Meuse, and the Sambre; and its principal fortresses are Antwerp, Mons, Charleroi, Philippeville, Marienburg, Ath, Tournay, Menin, Ypern, Ghent, Namur. With a population of 4,731,957, the army amounted, in 1861, to 73,718 men, or, including the reserves, to 100,000 men.

A like general remark as in the case of Belgium may be made in respect to the kingdom of the Netherlands, or Holland, concerning the openness of the country, excepting only that this is in a peculiar degree liable, by means of the canals, to be inundated, as a means of defence against an invading enemy. The rivers are more inconsiderable than in Belgium. With a population of 3,534,135, and, including that of the duchy of Luxemburg, of 4,321,416, an army has been organized of 58,495 men, of whom 20,500 are permanently in service. The principal fortresses are Luxemburg, Maestricht, Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom, Bois-le-Duc, Flushing, and the Helder. The navy, in 1858, comprised 5 ships-of-the-line, 18 frigates, 13 sloops-of-war, 8 brigs, and 14 war-steamers, manned by 5945 men. This constituted a naval force of about a sixth of that maintained in service two hundred years ago.

We come next to Germany, a country occupying a position in the centre of European civilization, and remarkable for the

number of its inhabitants who speak the same language and nearly resemble each other in their habits and manners, and who, nevertheless, have consented to live from generation to generation under many separate governments, thus rendering themselves often a prey to the cupidity and ambition of neighboring nations, whose destinies they could easily have controlled had they been united. This extensive region differs very essentially in its physical constitution, the southern portion of it being of a mountainous character, while the northern is nearly a wide and level plain. In reference, consequently, to their military topography, these two are to be treated very differently. We begin with Northern Germany.

Of the portion of this west of the Rhine we shall merely call the reader's attention to the Moselle being the only considerable tributary of this river, into which it flows at Coblentz, which is a fortified town belonging to Prussia, having opposite to it on the right bank of the Rhine, on an eminence, the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein (the broad stone of honor). Lower down this river we have another Prussian fortress, that of Wesel. The strongly fortified city of Mentz is higher up the stream, at the mouth of the Main, and has a Prussian and Austrian garrison.

Proceeding eastward from the Lower Rhine, we come to the line of the Weser, a river which, though having a course of about three hundred miles, is of very secondary importance in a strategical point of view, being liable to be turned in the upper part of its course. Bremen is the most considerable place upon its banks. It had 60,087 inhabitants in 1855; its commerce is very extensive; and it is the principal port for the embarkation of emigrants from Germany to the United States. Since 1814, great additions have been made to the fortifications of Minden, to make it a bulwark of defence for this part of the country.

The Elbe, from its entrance into Saxony to its mouth in the German Ocean, is an important line of defence against any enemy who has not the power of turning it by passing through Bohemia. The most noted strong places on its banks are Dresden, Torgau, Wittenberg, Magdeburg, and Hamburg; this last being at the same time one of the wealthiest and most commercial cities in Europe.

The next great river which we come to in order, is the Oder. It has a course of about four hundred and fifty miles, and is almost entirely a Prussian river. The fortified towns distributed along it are Breslau, Glogau, Custrin, and Stettin.

Farther on towards the east we reach the Vistula, on which we find the Prussian fortresses of Thorn, Graudentz, and Dantzic.

Now, if we add to the strong places which have been enumerated those of Stralsund and Colberg in Pomerania, of Spandau

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