in front of the scholar.

It pains the eye, if intense. If moderate in amount, it still inflicts an unconscious strain on the retina, by throwing on it an illumination which would be healthful if the eye were not at work on small objects, but which is a needless tax on the endurance of the laboring organ. Practically, any one may prove that it is much harder to read with the book held towards a window than with the book held away. This difficulty is felt by the scholar, who tries to remedy it in his own way.

Sometimes he holds the book closer to his eyes, which aids in developing near-sightedness. Sometimes he twists his body around so as to receive the light on his book in the natural way, and this, if allowed, may contribute to "one-sidedness" or crookedness of figure.

Windows in the rear, fronting the teacher, are very annoying to the teacher, and considerably lessen the power of watching the scholars; while for the scholars they are exceedingly bad, as they throw the shadow of the person on the desk or book.

The most agreeable light to write by is one which comes from a pretty high point, and strikes the page at a wide angle. An ordinary window will not give such a light, but may still be found very suitable if placed on the left of the scholars.

Light entering horizontally has hardly any value for a student who has to use a flat desk. The ex

F

periment may easily be made by any one.

Hence,

the lower panes of windows are of little use as admitting light for study. The upper parts are by far the most important, because they throw light to the opposite side of the room, and also light up the ceiling, which in reality is a principal source of light. By the use of iron beams, the window-heads may be brought within a few inches of the ceiling.

The reader will easily see the objections to a semicircular arrangement of the seats in a room (as is often the case in primary schools). It is not an advantage to the teacher to have to turn her head to the right and the left, as must be done if her chair is near the imaginary centre. Nor can such a group of seats be fairly lighted without throwing light directly in the faces of some of the scholars, not to speak of the teacher.

The size of the windows, taken collectively, should equal at least one-sixth of the floor-space, and ought generally to be more. In the best American schools, it is very much more.

Shades. The best protection against a hot sun is furnished by Italian canvas screens. Common cloth shades, with rollers, are good; they had better be rolled at the bottom. Shades with slats are better.

White daylight, the unaltered light of white clouds, or the clear sky is better than colored light to work by; hence, there is no advantage in tinting the ceiling, or in giving it any other than a clear-white color. But the walls at which the inmates of the room must

be frequently looking, and which cast side-lights into the eyes at most times, may be tinted of a bluish, or semi-violet, or neutral hue.

The blackboards should be so placed as to receive a good light. If put between windows, this is not the case, and the eye is fatigued by the bright light at the side.

Polished, brilliant, dazzling surfaces, or light-colored surfaces on which the sun is shining, should never catch the eye while at work. The floor should be dark and without polish. The sun's rays should never fall on the scholar's work.

Artificial light has to be used in some cases. It should be given by powerful burners at a considerable distance from the pupils. Ground-glass is bad for shades. Ground or ribbed glass is bad for windows.

Gas-light is a very good illuminator when the gas is good. But there is a great deal of an injurious substance given off in burning, chiefly consisting of sulphurous acid, which ought always to be got rid of by a special ventilating-cap and flue applied to the gas-flame, so arranged as to lead the spoiled air straight to the house-chimney before it can mingle with the air of the room. The tube may be so managed as to have a powerful ventilating action on the atmosphere of the room, also.

Decoration.

The sun is the best decorator, and should be let in when this is consistent with other

points. Flowers, plants, colored prints, light and

pretty wood for desks, give an impression of great cheerfulness, which it is very desirable to maintain in the interests of health. The lower part of the wall may be wainscoted, to preserve it and facilitate cleaning. Wall-paper should not be used; the walls should be finished with a material that can be cleaned or else whitewashed.

Architectural ornament is the last thing to be thought of in a school-house, which should be built, first and foremost, to do its work well as we build a locomotive-engine. "Architecture," i. e., considerations of external appearance, may be considered a foe to the health of school-children when it is allowed to absorb school-funds to the neglect of essential internal parts. The use of flanking projections, buttresses, pointed arches, or other features which cut off portions of light, is to be condemned entirely; the exterior appearance of a school-house must necessarily be rather plain in certain respects.

Closets. The children's outer clothing and umbrellas should not be kept in the class-room, to pollute the air with their steaming exhalations. A closet must be provided with space enough for each child's clothing to hang free of the next one's; and the closet should be warmed, lighted, and ventilated. Its position will naturally be near the class-rooin in ordinary cases.

The floor should be of hard, close-grained wood, of a kind which will not easily splinter.

CHAPTER X.

VENTILATION AND HEATING.

T is impossible to do justice to either of these

The warmed

warmed for a large part of the year. air must be got rid of by ventilating apparatus, which, again, is often in close relation with that for heating. The annual bills for heating and for ventilation depend equally on the price of coal. In practice it is found that, unless planned to work together, the "system" of ventilation often contradicts the " "system" of heating, and vice versâ. Need we speak of careless masons, carpenters, and tinsmiths, who render the best plans of the sanitary engineer void and of none effect?

In a word: All heating apparatus, with trifling exceptions, ought to be apparatus for supplying fresh air. It is impossible to consider the problem of introducing air without considering that of discharging it. It is absurd to hire one man to get the air into a room, and another to get it out. And yet this is practically done in assigning contracts.