The vakeels undergo an examination before a commission composed of natives and Europeans. The standard to be attained would seem to be high, as in Agra, in the year 1852, out of twenty-seven candidates all failed; in Bareily, out of forty-eight, forty-six failed; and in Benares, out of seventy-two, sixty-eight failed. From the vakeels are nominated the moonsiffs, who have only to decide upon matters of minor import. Promotion takes place by seniority; a moonsiff becomes sudder aumeen, and may, ultimately, be promoted to the post of principal sudder aumeen.*

Formerly, the civil servants were educated at the college of Haileybury, and were subsequently initiated into their duties in India; after undergoing an examination they entered upon their practical career either as assistants to magistrates or collectors. Penal cases of a minor nature, and appeals against the taxes, were committed to them, but always under supervision of their immediate chief. After a long practical initiation, and undergoing a final examination, they were definitively appointed to a post.

The system of taxation is under the control of the board of revenue, subordinate to which are the revenue commissioners and collectors; under these act the native deputy collectors. The chief revenues of the government in India are derived from the salt and land tax; other revenues are raised from duties on opium, the tobacco monopoly, the abkarree or tax on spirituous liquors, and from the post and stamp dues.‡

The land-tax is collected in a peculiar manner; in the provinces of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, and Benares, zemindars pay to the government a permanent rate irrespective of the higher or lower value of the ground. The zemindars, who were formerly only farmers of revenue, have, since 1793, been recognized by the British government as landowners. The second system of ground-tax is that called the "ryotwar;" which mostly prevails in Bombay. The "ryotwars" are merely farmers, who receive from the government a grant of land for a specified time, for which they have to pay an annual rent. In North-west India a mixed system prevails; the land-tax being levied on the village at large.

The ecclesiastical establishment is placed under the Bishop of Calcutta, as metropolitan in India, with such jurisdiction and

* Statistical Papers, 46.
+ Ibid., 47.

Kaye, 143.

functions as the sovereign may direct; subject, nevertheless, to the general superintendence and revision of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Bishop of Calcutta has two suffragans, viz., the Bishops of Madras and Bombay, each of whom is assisted by an archdeacon.

The military system is controlled by a commander-in-chief. The rebellion of 1857 scattered the great Bengal army. There now exist the armies of Bombay, Madras, and the newly organized army of Bengal and Central India, selected from and composed of all manner of tribes, such as Sikhs and Ghoorkas.

THE END.

oral communication with, Blackstone on the Laws against Roman

Aristocracy, power of, in the 18th century, Branding, 213.

none without consent of par- Bulls, Papal, 204.

Cabinet, the, absorption of power by, 531. Civil service, the, 159.