The proportion borne to population by marriages and births in the two periods above referred to has been as follows:

:

The phenomena presented for consideration by Ireland are being thus reproduced in England -extensive emigration being accompanied by reckless marriages, great increase of births, and corresponding increase of mortality—thus furnishing further evidence of the adaptability of the procreative tendencies to the particular circumstances in which a community is placed.

That the general tendency is towards a diminution of the duration of life, is shown by the following table representing the proportion of deaths to 10,000 persons living :

Steadiness and regularity are as much to be desired in the societary movement, as in that of a steam engine, or a watch. These obtained, there is a constant tendency toward acceleration of the circulation, with corresponding increase in the growth of

*That the growing mortality is due, in part at least, to increased intemperance, would seem to be proved by the fact, that the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, in their last report, have called attention to the large in crease in the consumption of spirits, the duties on which, in 1857-8, were no less than £9,230,963=$44,308,000; or about $1.50 per head, of the total population.

wealth, in the proportion of the laborer, in the development of individuality, in the power of association and combination, and in that feeling of responsibility by which man is distinguished from all the other animals that walk the face of earth. That they may be obtained, it is indispensable that employments become diversified society then gradually assuming its natural form, and agriculture becoming more a science, with constant increase in the productiveness of the labor given to developing the powers of the earth. For almost a century past, all the efforts of the British people have been given to an effort at preventing the diversification of employments in other communities -the result being seen in the exhaustion of Turkey, Portugal, Ireland, India, Jamaica, and all other countries that have not protected themselves against a "warfare" carried on for the purpose of "stifling in the cradle" the infant manufactures of the world; and in the production, in Britain herself, of a state of things corresponding precisely with that foretold by Adam Smith, as certain to result from the maintenance of a system denounced by him, as "a manifest violation of the most sacred rights of mankind."'*

In studying the facts presented for consideration by various nations, it is indispensable that allowance be made for the conditions in which they have been placed. Greece having, for centuries, been the prey of Venetians and Turks- Italy having been the theatre of war for Austria, France, and Spain - both should present for examination phenomena totally different from those of Britain. Belgium, ravaged as it has been by contending armies, has had a life that has been widely different from that of England the one having been made a constant scene of war, while the other has enjoyed the profoundest internal peace. Nowhere has man enjoyed the opportunity that has been afforded in this latter, for fitting himself to become nature's master. Nowhere has so great a mastery been obtained, and if it has failed to bring with it increased production-great power of accumulation-equitable distribution and growing tendency towards harmony in the relations of man with nature, and of man with his fellow-man- the cause of this must be found in human error, and not in Providential blunders. Those who seek it in the former will be sure to

*See ante, vol. i., p. 415.

find it-taking for their guide, in their inquiries, the author of the Wealth of Nations.

-

7. Pioneer life, where property and person are reasonably secure, is, as has been shown, favorable to increase of numbers-isolated men having little occasion for the exercise of any faculties but those by which the physical powers are stimulated, leaving the mental ones in a great degree undeveloped. Reasoning à priori, therefore, it is to the former provinces, and present States, of North America, we should look for the most rapid growth of numbers, and there it is we find it. In the natural course of affairs, however, this should change the real MAN becoming more stimulated into action-foresight taking the place of recklessness care, economy, thoughtfulness, and a desire for the higher enjoyments of life, becoming the characteristics of the people. Such, too, would be the change observed under a system which tended towards facilitating the growth of the power of combination, and consequent development of the intellectual man; one that looked to the creation of a scientific agriculture. Unhappily, however, that which has been pursued is the reverse of thisit being only a continuation of that colonial one, under which the soil was being then exhausted, and men were driven towards the wilderness to seek new lands, and thus perpetuate the pioneer life, as the condition of American existence.*

Examine it where we may, the system is one of contrasts-local action being the theory on which it stands, and centralization being the practice. The one would tend to the production of steadiness in the societary movement-development of individuality in the people increase of that feeling of responsibility which leads to temperance and moderation in all the pursuits of life—and to harmony among both individuals and States. The other looks in

* Kalm, the Swedish traveller, writing in 1749, says of the people of the then provinces: "They make scarce any manure for their corn-fields; but when one piece of ground has been exhausted by constant cropping, they clear and cultivate another piece of fresh land; and, when that is exhausted, proceed to a third. Their cattle are allowed to wander through the woods and other uncultivated grounds, where they are half-starved- having long ago extirpated almost all the annual grasses by cropping them too early in the spring, before they had time to form their flowers, or to shed their seeds."-Quoted by SMITH: Wealth of Nations, Part 1, chap. xi. The picture here presented of the 2,000,000 of people then existing, is almost equally accurate when applied to the 30,000,000 of 1858.

a direction entirely the reverse of this—the societary action becoming more unstable from year to year-individuality diminishing as human pursuits become more limited to those of trade and cultivation and the feeling of responsibility steadily declining; with correspondent growth of intemperance in the indulgence of the passions-whether those leading to increase of numbers, or to the destruction of adult life.*

Of vital statistics for the Union at large, there are none-there being no general provision for the record of the movement of population. The census returns show that the proportion of persons living to an advanced age is great, but beyond that we have little that is of general application. Of the States, Massachusetts is the only one that has presented us with statistics that are entirely reliable the example she has set, contrasting favorably with the neglect that prevails elsewhere. From them, we now learn how excessive is the proportion borne by foreign marriages, births, and deaths, to the total number. Of 2536 men who were married in the city of Boston, in 1856, no less than 1503 were foreigners more than half of the women being also foreign. Here, accordingly, we find an extraordinary destruction of infant life the phenomena of Ireland being reproduced on the western coast of the Atlantic. Of all the deaths in the State, more than a fifth occur in the first year of life-those occurring in the first five years being more than 40 per cent. of the whole.§ In Boston, the chance of death, in the first five years, is greater than in all the rest of life. How far the facts here observed, can be applied to the Union at large, there are no means of knowing, but when we look to New York city we find that, whereas, in 1817, the deaths under 5, were but a third of the whole, their proportion had grown, in 1857, to seven-tenths! In the last ten years, those of adults

* An estimate, founded on the Reports of the mercantile agencies of New York, gives one store and store-keeper for every 123 persons, of all ages, in the Union. This would give one family to be supported by every 24leaving wholly out of view the mass of small traders, transporters, and other middlemen. It may be doubted if, in any other country, this class presents such large proportions.

In 1850, there were 2,555 persons over 100 years of age; in France, there were only 102, though the population was nearly 36,000,000.

See ante, p. 264.

Of 100 children born in Massachusetts, more than 13 died in the first year. In London and Paris, more than 16.

Of the

have been but 82,117, against 138,158 of children.* colored population of that city, the deaths are to the births as 7 to 3, or more than 2 to 1.†

In no country of the world do we meet such remarkable contrasts great length of life, under certain conditions, here presenting itself side by side with an infant mortality scarcely exceeded in the world. In the eight years ending with 1855, the average age, at death, of males of all professions, in Massachusetts, who had survived 20 years, was nearly 63 years.‡ On the other hand, we have the facts, that whereas, in the city of Baltimore, from 1831 to 1840, the deaths were 1 in 43, they are now 1 in 40that in New York, in 1810, there died 1 in 46, against 1 in 41 in 1815, 1 in 37 in 1820, 1 in 34 in 1825, and 1 in 28 in 1855.§

For the new States, we have no statistics, but the general fact presents itself, that the people who are driven, by an adverse policy, prematurely to commence the work of settlement, are constantly endeavoring to cultivate the richer soils, in advance of the conditions required for the preservation of health and life. Of this, disease and death are necessary consequences—the system

*The total deaths in England, in 1855, were ........................ 216,587 Of these, there were under 5 years 89,527

(being about 44 per cent. of the whole.) The total deaths in London were ..................................................... .......................... 31,354 Of these, under 5 years

And from 5 to 65

13,200 13,714

The chance of life in London is, therefore, fully equal to that of Boston, and greatly superior to that of New York.

†The still-born children of New York, in 1855, were 1659 in number. Their ratio to the total deaths was 1 in 13.70.

SHATTUCK: Memorials of the Shattuck Family, p. 44. This work, probably the most remarkable contribution to vital statistics that has yet been made, is the production of a gentleman to whom we are largely indebted for the admirable character of the Massachusetts Reports. In it are given accounts of 1037 descendants from a couple who married in 1642. Of these, only 13.40 per cent died under 20. Of 898 who attained that age, 91-84 per cent. married the proportion borne by the married to the whole number being 79.27. Of 377 marriages in the first six generations, 53 of which were second, and 6 third marriages, the average product was 6 children. The average age of marriage was, of males, from 24 to 25 years; females, 20 to 22. Of 522 whose age at death has been correctly ascertained, 14-37 per cent. died before 15-the average of all being 53 years. Of those who passed 20, the average was 631. The total number of descendants, bearing the family name, of this single couple, is estimated at 5297.

Much of the extraordinary increase here observed, is due to immigration the yearly average of foreign deaths being 30 per cent., and rising, on some occasions, to 35 per cent. of the whole. In the ten years ending in 1856, the deaths of immigrants numbered 64,494.