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Non enim sibi solum cum iis, quos jam armatos contra populum Romanum videbat, bellandum esse duxit, sed totam Galliam in nostram ditionem esse redigendam. Itaque cum acerrimis nationibus et maximis Germanorum et Helvetiorum praeliis felicissime decertavit; ceteras conterruit, compulit, domuit, imperio populi Romani parere assuefecit, et quas regiones quasque gentes nullae nobis antea litterae, nulla vox, nulla fama notas fecerat, has noster imperator nosterque exercitus et populi Romani arma peragrarunt. Semitam tantum Galliae tenebamus antea, patres conscripti; ceterae partes a gentibus aut inimicis huic imperio aut infidis aut incognitis aut certe immanibus et barbaris et bellicosis tenebantur; quas nationes nemo umquam fuit quin frangi domarique cuperet; nemo sapienter de re publica nostra cogitavit jam inde a principio hujus imperii, quin Galliam maxime timendam huic imperio putaret; sed propter vim ac multitudinem gentium illarum numquam est antea cum omnibus dimicatum. Restitimus semper lacessiti. Nunc denique est perfectum ut imperii nostri terrarumque illarum idem esset extremum. XIV. Alpibus Italiam munierat antea natura non

Cicero knew this or whether he collected it from what Caesar had done, one cannot tell. He says video fuisse.' Cicero mentions the Germani before the Helvetii, though the Helvetii were defeated first. This is a slight matter. Caesar's second campaign carried the Roman arms to the banks of the Maas in the north. He had struck terror into the nations whom he had not subdued, for after the battle on the Sambre a single legion which was sent into the Armoric states under P. Crassus received the submission (B.c. 57) of all these states (Caesar, B. G. ii. 34). It was however not a real submission, for Caesar had to try all his strength against them the next year, the year in which this speech was made.

Semitam tantum] He calls the Provincia, the south part of France along the Mediterranean, a semita' or path. It was a road into Spain for the Romans.

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Galliam maxime timendam] This is true. The Galli were the most formidable enemies that the Romans had to encounter. They had settled south of the Alps at some unknown time, and from the earliest periods of Roman history fresh bodies from Transalpine Gallia invaded Italy from time to time, as the Gaul continues to do.

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numine.' He gives to what he calls ‘natura' an efficient power, not without some 'divine numen.' He expresses however in a way the idea that the formation of the Italian peninsula was designed and adapted to protect it against the barbarians of the north. The three great peninsulas, which form the south of Europe, are protected by their position and their mountain barriers against invasions from the north. Such is the character of the continent of Europe north of the three peninsulas, and its connection with respect to the great mass of Asia, and such were the habits of the people who inhabited the centre and north of Europe, that there was no rest; one nation was pressing on another, the German on the Gaul, sometimes the Gaul on the German, and the German in his turn was harassed by his neighbours on the east. Every movement in the great plain country of Europe and Asia disturbed not only those who were nearest to it, but even those who were remote. In Cicero's time the land was not even appropriated to private use in Germany, or in a large part of it. Men were not fixed to the soil by the strongest of all ties, the possession of land and a house. Gallia was farther advanced in civilization than Germany. She had cities, roads, bridges, and the certain sign of a settled population, tolls and taxation. But Gallia was politically unsettled, being divided into

sine aliquo divino numine; nam si ille aditus Gallorum immanitati multitudinique patuisset, numquam haec urbs summo imperio domicilium ac sedem praebuisset. Quae jam licet considant, nihil est enim ultra illam altitudinem montium usque ad Oceanum quod sit Italiae pertimescendum. Sed tamen una atque altera aestas vel metu vel spe vel poena vel praemiis vel armis vel legibus potest totam Galliam sempiternis vinculis astringere. Impolitae vero res et acerbae si erunt relictae, quamquam sunt accisae, tamen efferent se aliquando et ad renovandum bellum revirescent. Quare sit in

numerous states, governed by nobles and priests, and subject to continual revolutions. The danger to Rome from the Gallic people was over when North Italy was conquered, and the south of France was secured. But the nation was still uneasy. The whole population of the Helvetii (B.c. 58) attempted to break out of their prison between the Jura, the Alps, and the Rhine, and to escape from the German pressure on the east. The Germans had got into Belgium as soon as the Romans were well settled in the south of France, had seized the fertile country on the Rhine north and south of Strassburg, and had quartered themselves also in Gallia west of the Rhine, between the Jura and the Saone. Caesar by his Helvetic and German campaigns of B.C. 58 had freed the Province from all danger on this side, and by his great victory over the Belgians in B.C. 57 he had made the Roman name a terror to the northern nations on both sides of the Rhine (Caesar, B. G. ii. 35). An excellent modern writer has some remarks on the configuration of the European peninsula, and its effects on the civilization of Europe (Mignet, Introduction de l'ancienne Germanie dans la Société Civilisée, Mém. Hist. p. 1 &c.).

Quae jam licet considant] The Alps may now sink down' to the level of the plains a bold way of speaking. "This rhetorical turn is bold, and may be called almost koket!" (Klotz). Bold it certainly is; whether it is kokett I cannot tell, not knowing what sense a German gives to a French word which he does not understand. 'Considere' signifies to 'settle down.' Cicero speaks in the same style again (In Pis. c. 33). So Ovid says (Met. i. 43) in his beautiful introduction, using another form of the root sid:

"Jussit et extendi campos, subsidere valles, Fronde tegi silvas, lapidosos surgere montes."

sempiternis vinculis] It took rather longer than Cicero expected to do this. In B.C. 52 all the Gallic nations rose against Caesar under Vercingetorix; and nothing but the genius of the great Roman general and his unwearied activity put down this formidable enemy. But with the capture of the hill fort of Alesia B.C. 52 the war was ended, and Gallia received the chains in which the Roman held her bound till the German Franks again got the superiority. In B.C. 50 the Gaul after being well beaten was coaxed into submission by Caesar, who was now meditating the conquest of Italy; for the conquest of Gallia was the way to conquer Rome. Caesar's continuator has well enough described his policy: "Caesar in Belgio quum hiemaret, unum illud propositum habebat continere in amicitia civitates, nulli spem aut caussam dare armorum; nihil enim minus volebat quam sub decessum suum necessitatem sibi aliquam inponi belli gerendi, ne quum exercitum deducturus esset bellum aliquod relinqueretur, quod omnis Gallia libenter sine praesenti periculo susciperet. Itaque honorifice civitates appellando, principes maximis praemiis afficiendo, nulla onera nova imponendo, defessam tot adversis proeliis Galliam conditione parendi meliore facile in pace continuit" (B. G. viii. 49).

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acerbae] The metaphor has disturbed the critics. Nipperdey proposes 'asperae,' Baiter proposes crudae.' I propose to let Cicero speak in his own way. The things will be impolitae,' unfinished, left in the rough (rudes); then he says 'acerbae,' sour, unripe; then he says 'accisae,' lopped, pruned, clipped, cut short, like a tree or a bird's wings, as Horace has it (Sat. ii. 2, v. 114):

"Integris opibus novi non latius usum Quam nunc accisis."

Horace also has "decisis humilem pennis," speaking of himself.

ejus tutela Gallia, cujus virtuti, fidei, felicitati commendata est, qui si, Fortunae muneribus amplissimis ornatus saepius ejus deae periculum facere nollet, si in patriam, si ad deos penates, si ad eam dignitatem, quam in civitate sibi propositam videt, si ad jucundissimos liberos, si ad clarissimum generum redire properaret, si in Capitolium invehi victor cum illa insigni laude gestiret, si denique timeret casum aliquem, qui illi tantum addere jam non potest quantum auferre, nos tamen oporteret ab eodem illa omnia a quo profligata sunt confici velle. Quum vero ille suae gloriae jampridem, rei publicae nondum satisfecerit, et malit tamen tardius ad suorum laborum fructus pervenire quam non explere susceptum rei publicae munus, nec imperatorem incensum ad rem publicam bene gerendam revocare, nec totam Gallici belli rationem prope jam explicatam perturbare atque impedire debemus.

XV. Nam illae sententiae virorum clarissimorum minime probandae sunt, quorum alter ulteriorem Galliam decernit cum Syria, alter citeriorem. Qui ulteriorem, omnia illa de quibus disserui paullo ante perturbat; simul ostendit eam se scire legem quam esse legem neget, et quae pars provinciae sit, cui non possit intercedi, hanc se avellere, quae defensorem habeat non tangere; simul et illud facit ut, quod illi a populo datum sit, id non violet; quod senatus

felicitati] His good fortune, one of the qualities of a great commander.-' Fortunae muneribus:' see Vol. iii. Index.

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jucundissimos liberos] Caesar had only one daughter Julia, who was married to Cn. Pompeius: but it is usual to say 'liberi' of one child. illa insigni:' a common use of 'ille; it is emphatic (c. 12). The commander in his triumph wore the 'laurea' on his head. Some editions have laurea.' profligata] The word seems to mean 'have been so far carried' or 'so far done.' Gellius (xv. 5) speaks of the abuse of the meaning of this word: "nam quum ab affligendo et ad perniciem interitumque deducendo inclinatum id tractumque sit, semperque eo verbo qui diligenter loquuti sunt ita usi sunt ut profligare dicerent prodigere et deperdere, profligatasque res quasi proflictas et perditas appellarent, nunc audio aedificia et templa et alia fere multa quae prope absoluta affectaque sunt, in profligato esse dici, ipsaque esse profligata jam." But Gellius is mistaken as many critics have shown. Profligata' occurs in the Monumentum Ancyranum, "coepta profligataque opera.. perfeci," in Cicero else where, in Tacitus, and in Livy. (See c. 8,

'affecta.')

15. ulteriorem Galliam] We here learn that one proposition was to assign Gallia Ulterior or Citerior and Syria to the two consuls who should be elected. Thus Gabinius would be recalled and Caesar would lose one of his provinces.

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eam se scire legem quam esse] G. E.; eam sentire legem esse' P1. Various alterations have been proposed here. It is doubtful whether scire' is the right word, or 'sentire' or something else. The error, if there is any, lies there. But the meaning is certain. The Lex of Vatinius gave Gallia Citerior and Illyricum to Caesar. The senate gave him Gallia Transalpina. He who proposed to take from Caesar Gallia Transalpina and to leave him Citerior, admitted that the Lex of Vatinius was a Lex, even though he might deny that it was.

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pars provinciae cui non possit intercedi is Transalpina which the senate conferred, and in that matter the Tribuni had no veto. The provincia quae defensorem habeat' is Citerior. It was conferred by the Populus and the Tribuni would maintain Caesar in it. hanc se avellere:' Baiter writes 'eam' for hanc.' P. has 'an.'

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dederit, id senator properet auferre. Alter belli Gallici rationem habet; fungitur officio boni senatoris: legem, quam non putat, eam quoque servat; praefinit enim successori diem. Quo mihi nihil videtur minus a dignitate disciplinaque majorum quam ut qui consul Kalendis Jan. habere provinciam debet, is ut eam desponsam, non decretam habere videatur. Fuerit toto in consulatu sine provincia, cui fuerit antequam designatus est decreta provincia? Sortietur an non? Nam et non sortiri absurdum est, et, quod sortitus sis non habere. Proficiscetur paludatus? Quo? Quo pervenire ante certam diem non licebit. Januario, Februario provinciam non habebit. Kalendis ei denique Martiis nascetur repente provincia. Ac tamen his sententiis Piso in provincia permanebit. Quae quum gravia sunt, tum nihil gravius illo, quod muletari imperatorem deminutione provinciae contumeliosum est, neque solum summo in viro, sed etiam mediocri in homine ne accidat providendum.

XVI. Ego vos intelligo, patres conscripti, multos decrevisse eximios honores C. Caesari, et prope singulares; quod ita meritus erat, grati, sin etiam, ut quam conjunctissimus huic ordini esset, sapientes ac divini fuistis. Neminem umquam est hic ordo complexus honoribus et beneficiis suis, qui ullam dignitatem praestabiliorem ea quam per vos esset adeptus putarit. Nemo umquam hic

Alter] The senator who proposed to let Caesar keep Gallia Ulterior and to take from him Citerior.- legem, quam non putat:' he maintains the Lex of Vatinius, though he does not think that it is a Lex. He adds for he fixes a day for Caesar's successor;' and the day as he tells us was the first of March, not the beginning of the year.

Quo mihi.. minus] 'Quo' is the emendation of Manutius, who also proposed 'magis' forminus.' The passage is corrupt. Madvig has ' Quo mihi nihil alienius,' which Baiter accepts.

Kal. Jan.] A consul ought to have his provincia secured to him when he entered on his office on the first of January; instead of which he would have a promise of it (desponsam), like a wife promised, but not got.

Fuerit toto in] Must the consul be without a province during all his consulship, though a province was assigned for him before he was elected.' If the propositions were voted, some two provinces would be assigned to the consuls who would be elected for the next year (B.c. 55). But as to Citerior Gallia, the consul who was to

take that province in B.C. 54, was not to have it as his till that year, and not at the beginning of the year. He was to have the promise of it instead of having it named as his.

Sortietur] The two consuls détermined by lot or otherwise agreed which of the two consular provinces each should have. Cicero asks how could they decide by lot about a thing that was not in their power.

paludatus] See Ver. ii. 5, c. 13, Vol. i. Kal. Martiis] So that the five years of Caesar's occupation of Gallia Citerior should be completed; for he means the first of March after the expiration of the consulship of those consuls who should be elected in B.C. 56, the year when this speech was spoken.

Ac tamen] And still if these proposi

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tions are carried Piso will remain in his
province.'-' Quae quum gravia:' quae'
seems to refer to all that he has said.-
'mulctari imperatorem:' that is Caesar.
16. singulares; quod] Singulari quod'
C. Gruter wrote singulares: si quod,'
which Baiter has followed. Gruter also
wrote 'grati' in place of the gratis' of the
MSS.

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potuit esse princeps, qui maluerit esse popularis. Sed homines aut propter indignitatem suam diffisi ipsi sibi, aut propter reliquorum obtrectationem ab hujus ordinis conjunctione depulsi, saepe ex hoc portu se in illos fluctus prope necessario contulerunt. Qui si ex illa jactatione cursuque populari, bene gesta re publica, referunt aspectum in curiam atque huic amplissimae dignitati esse commendati volunt, non modo non repellendi sunt, verum etiam expetendi. Monemur a fortissimo viro atque optimo post hominum memoriam consule, ut provideamus ne citerior Gallia nobis invitis alicui * * post eos consules, qui nunc erunt designati, perpetuoque posthac ab iis qui hunc ordinem oppugnent populari ac turbulenta ratione teneatur. Quam ego plagam etsi non contemno, patres conscripti, praesertim monitus a sapientissimo consule et diligentissimo custode pacis atque otii, tamen vehementius arbitror pertimescendum, si hominum clarissimorum ac potentissimorum aut honorem minuero aut studium erga hunc ordinem repudiaro. Nam ut C. Julius omnibus a senatu eximiis aut novis rebus ornatus per manus hanc provinciam tradat ei cui minime vos velitis, per quem ordinem ipse amplissimam

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fortissimo viro. . consule] Hotmann says it is the consul L. Philippus; but other commentators with better reason think that Cicero means Lentulus. Abrami quotes a letter to Cicero's brother (Ad Q. Fr. ii. 6): "Consul est egregius Lentulus non impediente collega, sic, inquam, bonus ut meliorem non viderim." Philippus was connected with Caesar, for he had married Atia the mother of him who was afterwards Augustus, and the daughter of Caesar's sister Julia. He had also given his daughter

Marcia to M. Cato.

This consul expressed his fear that as the populus had given Gallia Citerior to Caesar by the Lex of Vatinius, they might give the province again to some Popularis, who might use his dangerous proximity to Rome to disturb the state. It was wise therefore for the senate to seize the present opportunity of making Gallia Citerior a Consularis provincia. The word 'decernatur,' which is generally added before 'post,' is not in C. I do not know what authority there is for it.

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Manutius remarks that it is either a blunder, or Cicero has used the word improperly, for the 'senatus decernit,' and the populus jubet.' Madvig quoted by Baiter says the same. The remark is true as everybody knows who has read Cicero. Halm proposes 'obveniat.' C. Julius] This is not a usual way of mentioning a man. No variation is noted by Baiter.

per manus tradat] As if it had been suggested that Caesar would keep the province of Citerior Gallia to the end of his five years, and then hand it over to some man to whom the populus had given it, and to a successor not appointed by the senate. 'Per manus' is used in various ways. Cicero (Ad Att. i. 12) says, "P. Clodium per manus servulae servatum et eductum." Caesar (B. G. vi. 38) uses "aegre per manus tractus servatur" (and B. C. i. 68). Its original sense then is from hand to hand;' and the fear was that Caesar might pass this province from his own hands to another's, perhaps surreptitiously. Abrami says that the expression seems to smell of a proverb, as in a letter of Cicero to Caesar (vii. 5), in which he is recommending Trebonius: "Totum denique hominem tibi trado, de manu, ut aiunt, in manum istam tuam" &c. this is not quite the same thing. This expression is the origin of the French de la main à la main,' which however has a particular sense, 'secretly;' and here the Latin

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