Act. 1. 10, secundum Kalendas Ianuarias, after the first of January: secundum binos ludos, ibid. 11, and elsewhere; e. g. Cic. Or. 1. 62: Cic. Att. 3. 12.

10.) for poue, we find secundum or post; e. g. secundum auren, behind the ear, Sulp. in Cic. ad Div. 4. 12: yet it may be, near the ear: secundum aram aurum abscondidi, Plaut. ap. Prisc. 10.

11.) for secundum, a) pro; e. g. pro dignitate, according to worth: b) ex; as, ex æquo, according to equity: ex lege vivere, according to law: c) ad; as, ad voluntatem alicuius loqui, to speak according to the will of any one.

12.) for propter or ob, a) per, in entreaties; e. g. rogo te per deum, I ask thee for God's sake: per nostram amicitiam &c. b) pro; e. g. pro amicitia id facias, do that for the sake of our friendship: c) præ; as, præ gaudio, lacrymis, loqui non possum &c.

13.) for super over, per is more commonly used in such expressions as, currere per agros, to run over the fields: ducere exercitum per montes, over the mountains &c.

14.) For versus, ad is often used; as, tendere ad urbem, towards the city though versus and ad are often used together.

II.) Prepositions for particular substantives; e. g.

1.) A for a parte: as, stare ab aliquo, to stand on any one's side so, a fronte, on the front; a tergo, on the rear; for a parte frontis, tergi: also for ratione, in respect to; e. g, firmus a peditatu, laborare a re frumentaria &c.

2.) Ad a) for in comparatione, which sometimes, though incorrectly, occurs; as, nihil ad Persium, Cic., nothing in comparison with Persius : b) for ratione, with respect to, after adjectives; as, hæc res est ad fructum uberrima.

3.) Contra for a regione: e. g. contra Italiam, on the opposite side to Italy.

4.) De for ratione, with respect to: as Cic. ad Div. 3. 12.3, de me autem suscipe meas partes, with respect to me; and elsewhere also for a or ex; e. g. de patre, for ex patre, Cic. Or. 3. 33, and elsewhere; e. g. Cic. ad Div. 11. 12: quærere de aliquo, for ab (ex) aliquo, Cic. Att. 1. 14: Cic. Pis. 9: Cic. Vatin. 4: Liv. 4. 40.

5.) Ex for per occasionem, on occasion of: Cic. ad Div. 2. 15. 2, quid si meam (epistolam) legas, quam er tuis literis misi, which I sent on occasion of &c.

6.) Pro for loco, in the place of: also in defensionem; e. g. pro aliquo dicere, to speak in defence of another.

7.) Præ for in comparatione, in comparison of; as, felix sum prie te, in comparison of thee.

III.) Prepositions instead of verbs, especially participles; e. g. clam patre, i. e. patre ignorante : legi omnes scriptores præter Homerum, for excepto Homero: sum felix præ te, for comparatus tecum, or si quis me tecum comparet, if one compare me with you: coram patre, in presence of my father, for patre præsente, or vidente.

IV.) A preposition may also be used for a conjunction; e. g. pater cum matre profectus est, for pater et mater profecti sunt.

§ 8.

Of the Interchange of Conjunctions.

I.) With each other; e. g.

1.) Et, at, que, atque, are equivalent: so nam, enim: aut, vel; which must not be interchanged with sive or seu. Aut and vel are inostly said of different things; as, Pallas aut Iuno, Mi

nerva vel Iuno: but sive and seu of different names of the same thing, Pallas seu Minerva; Apollo sive Phoebus. Yet we find also sive or seu for vel (aut); e. g. regis Philippi sive Persæ, Cic. Agr. 2. 19: matri seu novercæ, Liv. 1. 3: resistas, sive etiam ultro occurras, Cic. Q. Fr. 1. 11: Parthus sive Cython, Virg. Æn. 12.585.

2.) Ut is often used a) with tam, ita prefixed, for et; e. g. for deus est valde benignus et dat nobis &c., we say, deus est tam benignus ut det &c.: for non possim tam inhumanus esse et tibi denegare, we always say, non possim tam inhumanus esse ut tibi denegem: b) with tam, ita, tantus &c. prefixed, for nam, enim &c.; as, for sum infelix: nihil enim habeo, quo meam vitam sustentem, we may say, sum ita infelix, ut nihil habeam, quo &c.: c) for igitur, hinc &c.; e. g. for tu neminem amas: hinc non mirum est, te a nemine amari, we may say, tu neminem amas, ut non mirum sit, te &c.

3.) Etsi, licet &c., are generally used for quidem indeed, and then are followed by tamen for sed, autem, vero: as, for doctrinæ initium est quidem difficile, sed eius fructus dulces sunt, we rather say, etsi initium doctrinæ difficile est, tamen eius &c.

4.) For etiam, quoque or et is used: vel is used for etiam when it means even.

II.) Conjunctions are sometimes used for verbs; as, a) nisi habes nihil nisi libros, thou hast nothing except books, for exceptis libris: b) ut, suppose that: it is common in Cicero and elsewhere; e. g. ut hæc omnia vera sint, tamen &c., suppose that all these things are true &c., for faciamus, fingamus, ponamus, or finge &c., hæc omnia esse vera.

III.) Conjunctions are sometimes used for adverbs; e. g. a) neque for non: but only at the beginning of a period; as, neque vero, neque tamen, neque enim: of which we spoke above: b) ut for hinc; e. g. pater et

mater profecti sunt: ut nos nunc soli simus, hence we are now alone.

§ 9.

Of the Interchange of Interjections.

E. g. for quam miser ego sum! we may say, o me miserum! for quam terribilis mors est hominibus, how terrible is death to men, we may say, o mortem hominibus terribilem! for audi, we sometimes find heus! &c.

$10.

Of the means of the Interchange of Words.

I.) Instead of the word itself, we may continually use a double negative; e. g. non indoctus, for doctus: non est obscurum, for est manifestum: non nescio, or non ignoro, for scio: non nemo, for aliquot: nemo non, for omnes or quisque : non nihil, for aliquid : nihil non, for omne, omnia: non nulli, for aliquot: non nunquam, for interdum : nunquam non, for semper : non semel, for sæpe : non dubito quin, for certo credo, or mihi persuasum est: non oblitus sum, for recordor, and non recordor, for oblitus sum: non multi, for pauci, and non pauci, for multi: non difficile est, for facile est: non pœnitet me, e. g. rei, fortunæ, for contentus sum re, fortuna &c. : all which instances are usual and well known. Especially non sine for cum; e. g. non sine laude, for cum laude; besides that we cannot always use cum, but non sine applies every where.

II.) Sometimes the preceding is used for the conse

quent idea or the contrary, by a metonymy; as, subire onus, properly, to go under a burden; suscipere, to undertake one, for ferre, perferre, tolerare. So Cicero says petasatus, having on a travelling-cap, for paratus ad iter. So, vale dicere, or iubere aliquem valere, for discedere; as we say, he took leave, i. e. he departed. Thus the ancients said signa conferre, properly, to unite the standards, to let them clash together, for prolium committere: so, inferre signa, for invadere: convellere signa, properly, to pull up the standards, for abire, to depart: 2.) the consequent for the preceding; as, beatus blessed, for mortuus: pallere to be pale, for timere; but the former is more forcible.

III.) The cause is used for the effect or the contrary, by a metonymy: 1.) the cause for the effect; as Mars for bellum; mens for cogitationes; mobilis for inconstans; memor and immemor, for gratus thankful and ingratus unthankful: meminisse alicuius, to think on one, for scribere ad aliquem, is tenderly said by Cicero, ad Div. 15. 17: memineris mei, remember me, i. e. write to me 2.) the effect for the cause; as trepidare for valde timere, or terreri.

IV.) The genus for the species; as commodare, properly, to be obliging, to do a favour, for to lend: vivere cum aliquo, for uti, to be intimate with: appellare, properly, to address, for to summon: dicere, to speak in general, for to hold a formal speech: accipere, to receive, for discere, to learn or hear, since the learner and hearer receives something: tradere, to deliver, for to teach or relate, speaking of historians: adesse alicui, to be present with any one, for to assist : adferre, to bring, instead of nuntiare: curare, to take