There are some individuals who cannot eat fish of any kind without symptoms of poisoning, and others who must avoid only certain kinds, like shellfish which produce skin disorders such as urticaria (hives).

Lobsters, crabs, clams, shrimps, and oysters afford a wholesome diet when perfectly fresh.

SECTION III

The Vegetable Foods. The cereals, wheat, rye, barley, oats, corn, and rice, are among the most important foods; all contain some proteids, a large proportion of carbohydrates, some fat, and phosphates.

Wheat contains the largest percentage of proteid material, and rice the least.

The large percentage of protein contained in the legumes peas and beans-renders them a valuable source of nitrogenous food as they are both inexpensive.

The grinding breaks up the grain and starch granules, separates the indigestible parts, and renders the starch suitable for cooking.

Flour ground by the old process is softer and smoother than by the new roller-process.

Wheat flour should not be too white, as that shows a lack of gluten. "Good flour holds together in a mass when squeezed by the hand, and retains the impressions of the fingers, and even the marks of the skin much longer than poor flour; when made into a dough, it is elastic, easy to be kneaded, will stay in a round, puffy shape, and will take up a large amount of water,1 while poor flour will be sticky, flatten or spread itself over the board, and will never seem stiff enough to be handled, no matter how much flour is used." 2

Flour of any kind should be kept in a dry place.

Besides white flour, Graham flour and entire wheat flour are made from wheat. Graham flour contains the entire grain, even the outside husk, while entire wheat flour contains all but the husk.

"Parenthetically, it may not be out of place to refer here to the absurd views maintained by a large part of the community as to the superiority from a hygienic standpoint of foods containing all of the constituents of the cereals from which they are prepared. It is difficult to understand how the nutritive value of any food can 1 One third of its bulk is the rule for bread.

2 Boston Cook Book. Mrs. Lincoln.

be increased by the retention of matters which are completely indigestible, and to a certain extent irritating to the digestive tract. It is argued that an all-wise Creator made wheat, for example, in the form in which we see it, and that it is not for us to attempt to improve it as we think by discarding the outer layers. But this sort of reasoning might be extended so as to favor the consumption of the peel of oranges, the bones of fish, the

FIG. 13.

The composition of three common vegetables.

feathers of birds, and other innutritious and undesirable waste products." 1

Bread. Bread is one of the most important forms of food, and is the most generally used food known. Wheat, being the most nutritious cereal and containing gluten, is the best adapted to bread making.

Bread contains flour, water, and salt, although its flavor and nutritive value are improved by the addition

1 Practical Hygiene, Harrington.

of sugar, milk, and butter. Well-made bread containing a small amount of fat is nearly a complete food in itself, hence the name "the staff of life."

To render bread "light" and digestible yeast is added to the other ingredients, the whole being kept in a temperature about 70° F. for several hours. The yeast acts upon the sugar and converts it into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, the latter by its expansion causing the bread to become porous and "rise."

If this process of fermentation is incomplete, the bread is heavy, and if continued too long, the bread "sours from the formation of lactic and acetic acids.

Good bread should be white, sweet, and spongy, with a tender crust.

Bread is more easily digested after twenty-four hours old.

Bread may acquire unwholesome properties by improper care. It should be removed from the tins and cooled upon a rack that the air may circulate upon all sides of the loaves. It should be kept in a closely covered earthen jar which should be used for no other purpose, and be washed and scalded between each baking. Damp, moldy bread may cause serious digestive disturbances.

Baking Powders. In lieu of yeast, a variety of baking powders are used to "leaven" different kinds of bread, rolls, biscuit, griddle cakes, cookies, and other sweet cakes.

Many cooks make their own baking powder by using 1 part of bicarbonate of soda and 2 parts of cream-oftartar, this combination being the basis of the so-called "cream-of-tartar" baking powders.

The action of potassium acid tartrate (cream of tartar) upon sodium bicarbonate liberates carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide).

The combination of bicarbonate of soda with sour milk is a common and wholesome "leaven," provided the soda is not used in excess, and is thoroughly sifted and blended with the dry ingredients before the sour milk is added, the amount used being governed by the degree of sourness of the milk.

The phosphatic baking powders are equally good and wholesome, and are much less expensive. Baking powders containing alum are universally condemned as' injurious to health.

The vegetables afford little proteids and fats, but a large proportion of carbohydrates and the mineral salts, and give variety to our diet.

Vegetables may be divided into tubers, such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, and Jerusalem artichokes, all of which yield a large proportion of carbohydrates; the roots, as carrots, radishes, beets, turnips, parsnips, which yield little nutriment and are chiefly valuable for their antiscorbutic (remedy or preventive of scurvy) properties.

The herbaceous vegetables, such as lettuce, cabbage, celery, asparagus, onions, spinach, and leeks, are also chiefly important on account of their mineral salts and of the variety they afford.

The tomato, cucumber, squash, pumpkin, and eggplant are really fruits used as vegetables; they contain about 90 per cent of water and are very poor in proteids, and contain about 8 or 9 per cent of carbohydrates.

In the use of uncooked vegetables, such as lettuce, radishes, young onions, and celery, great care should be