quoque nomine coheredi quisque suo condemnandus est, quod solus fructus hereditarii fundi percepit aut rem hereditariam corrupit aut consumpsit. Quæ quidem similiter inter plures quoque quam duos coheredes subsequuntur.

equivalent. So, too, an heir ought to be condemned to make compensation to his coheirs, who has alone enjoyed the fruits of the land of the inheritance, or has damaged or consumed anything forming part of the inheritance. And these rules apply, whether the coheirs are two or more.

D. x. 2. 51, 52. 2.

As to the office of the judge in the three actions noticed in this and the two succeeding paragraphs, see Introd. sec. 103.

5. Eadem interveniunt et si communi dividundo de pluribus rebus actum fuerit. Quod si de una re, veluti de fundo, si quidem iste fundus commode regionibus divisionem recipiat, partes ejus singulis adjudicare debet et, si unius pars prægravare videbitur, is invicem certa pecunia alteri condemnandus est quod si commode dividi non possit, vel homo forte aut mulus erit, de quo actum sit, uni totus adjudicandus est et is alteri certa pecunia condemnandus.

D. x. 2. 55;

6. Si finium regundorum actum fuerit, dispicere debet judex, an necessaria sit adjudicatio. Quæ sane uno casu necessaria est, si evidentioribus finibus distingui agros commodius sit, quam olim fuissent distincti; nam tunc necesse est ex alterius agro partem aliquam alterius agri domino adjudicari: quo casu conveniens est, ut is alteri certa pecunia debeat condemnari. Eo quoque nomine damnandus est quisque hoc judicio, quod forte circa fines malitiore aliquid commisit, verbi gratia quia lapides finales furatus est aut arbores finales cecidit. Contumaciae quoque nomine quisque eo judicio condemnatur, veluti si quis jubente judice metiri agros passus non fuerit.

D. x. 1, 2. 1;

7. Quod autem 'stis judiciis alicui adjudicatum sit, id statim ejus fit, cui adjudicatum est.

See Introd. sec. 103.

5. It is the same in the action communi dividundo for the division of a number of things. If there is only one object to be divided, for instance, a piece of land, the judge ought, if the land easily admits of division, to adjudge their respective shares to the several co-proprietors. And if one of them receives too large a share, the judge ought to order him to pay a sum of money as compensation to the other. If the thing is one that cannot be advantageously divided, as, for instance, a slave or mule, then the whole must be adjudged to one, and he must be condemned to pay a fixed sum as compensation to the other.

C. iii. 37. 3.

6. In the action finium regundorum the judge ought to examine if the adjudication is necessary, and it is so only in one case, viz. if it would be advantageous that the boundaries should be more clearly marked than before. In that case it becomes necessary to adjudge to one party a portion of the field of the other, and consequently the person to whom it is adjudged ought to be condemned to pay a fixed sum as compensation to the other. In this action he ought also to be condemned who has fraudulently interfered with the boundaries, as, for instance, by secretly carrying off the boundary stones, or cutting down the trees that mark the limit. A person may be also condemned by this same action for contumacy, who, in defiance of the order of the judge, opposes the measurement of the fields. D. x. 1. 3, 4. 3, 4.

7. In these actions, anything adjudged becomes at once the property of the person to whom it is adjudged.

TIT. XVIII. DE PUBLICIS JUDICIIS.

Publica judicia neque per actiones ordinantur nec omnino quidquam simile habent ceteris judiciis, de quibus locuti sumus, magnaque diversitas est eorum et in instituendis et in exercendis.

Public prosecutions are not introduced by actions, and bear no resemblance to the other legal remedies of which we have been speaking. There is a great difference between them, both in the mode in which they are begun and in that in which they are carried on.

The subject of public prosecutions is foreign to a treatise which, like the Institutes, professes to treat only of private law. It is not noticed at all in the Institutes of Gaius, and is treated in a very cursory manner in this Title. For the comprehension of this Title, it will be sufficient to observe that, in the later times of the Republic and in the first years of the Empire, a series of laws was made, fixing the penalty to be attached to particular crimes, and prescribing the procedure to be employed in the trial. Many of these laws are briefly referred to in this Title; and it was the trials conducted under their provisions that alone received the name of publica judicia. Under the Empire, most of the crimes not coming under these special laws, and especially those provided against by a senatusconsultum or constitution, were judged by the prætor or præfectus urbi in a more summary method. The judicium was then said to be not publicum, but extra ordinem; and gradually the method of procedure prescribed by the law for the different publica judicia fell into desuetude, and nothing was retained of the special laws but the penalty they fixed (D. xlviii. 1. 8), the procedure being the same as in the judicia extraordinaria. (See Introduction, sec. 112.)

1. Publica autem dicta sunt, 1. They are called public, because quod cuivis ex populo exsecutio generally any citizen may institute eorum plerumque datur. them.

D. xxiii. 2. 43. 10.

There were certain persons excluded from the right of bringing a criminal accusation; for instance, women, unless the injury complained of was done to themselves or their near relations, persons below the age of puberty, persons made infamous by a judicial sentence, and persons so poor as not to possess fifty aurei. (D. xlviii. 2. 2. 8 and 10.) But, generally speaking, it was the right of any one to make a criminal charge, although he might be totally unconnected by any ties with the person who suffered from the crime.

2. Publicorum judiciorum quædam capitalia sunt, quædam non capitalia. Capitalia dicimus, quæ ultimo supplicio adficiunt vel aquæ et ignis interdictione vel deportatione vel metallo : cetera si qua in

2. Some public prosecutions are capital, some are not. We term capital those which involve the extreme punishment of the law, or the interdiction from fire and water, or deportation, or the mines. Those which

The lex Julia majestatis was passed in the time of Julius Cæsar. (D. xliii. 4.)

Aliquid moliti sunt. The design, without any overt act, was enough to sustain the charge.

Et post mortem. (See Bk. iii. Tit. 1. 5.)

4. ltem lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis, quæ non solum temeratores alienarum nuptiarum gladio punit, sed etiam eos, qui cum masculis infandam libidinem exercere audent. Sed eadem lege Julia etiam stupri flagitium punitur, cum quis sine vi vel virginem vel viduam honeste viventem stupraverit. Poenam autem eadem lex irrogat peccatoribus, si honesti sunt, publicationem partis dimidiæ bonorum, si humiles, corporis coercitionem cum relegatione.

4. Also the lex Julia de adulteriis, which punishes with death not only those who defile the marriage bed, but those also who give themselves up to works of lewdness with their own sex. The same law also punishes the seduction without violence of a virgin, or of a widow of honest character. The penalty upon offenders of honourable condition is the confiscation of half their fortune, upon those of low condition, corporal punishment and relegation.

D. xlviii. 34. pr. and 1.

The lex Julia de adulteriis belongs to the time of Augustus, about B.C. 17.

Gladio punit. The lex Julia only punished the guilty with confiscation of a portion of their property and relegation. (PAUL. Sent. ii. 26. 14.) Constantine affixed the graver penalty. (C. ix. 9. 31.)

5. Item lex Cornelia de sicariis, quæ homicidas ultore ferro persequitur vel eos, qui hominis occidendi causa cum telo ambulant. Telum autem, ut Gaius noster in interpretatione legis duodecim tabularum scriptum reliquit, vulgo quidem id appellatur, quod ab arcu mittitur, sed et omne significatur, quod manu cujusdam mittitur: sequitur ergo, ut et lapis et lignum et ferrum hoc nomine contineatur. Dictumque ab eo, quod in longinquum mittitur, a Græca voce figuratum, àrò To

5. Also the lex Cornelia de sicariis, which strikes with the sword of vengeance those who for the purpose of killing a man go armed with a telum. By telum, according to the interpretation given by our Gaius in his commentaries on the Twelve Tables, is ordinarily meant anything that is shot from a bow, but it equally signifies anything sent from the hand. Thus, a stone, a piece of wood, or of iron, is included in the meaning of the term, for it merely implies something impelled to a distance, being derived

Tηλoù et hanc significationem invenire possumus et in Græco nomine: nam quod nos telum appellamus, illi βέλος appellant ἀπὸ τοῦ βάλλεσθαι. Admonet nos Xenophon; nam ita scripsit: kai rà Béλŋ óμoù épéрero, λόγχαι, τοξεύματα, σφενδόναι, πλεῖστοι δὲ καὶ λίθοι, Sicarii autem appellantur a sica, quod significat ferreum cultrum. Eadem lege et venefici capite damnantur, qui artibus odiosis, tam venenis quam susurris magicis homines occiderunt vel mala medicamenta publice vendiderunt.

from the Greek word rηλou. And the corresponding word in Greek has the same signification, for what we call telum, they call βέλος, from βάλλεσθαι, as we may learn from Xenophon, who says, they carried Beλn, viz. spears, arrows, slings, and a great quantity of stones.' Assassins are called sicarii from sica, an iron knife. By the same law, poisoners are capitally condemned who by hateful arts use poisons or magic charms to kill men, or publicly sell hurtful drugs.

D. xlviii. 8. 1; D. l. 16. 233. 2.

Lex Cornelia de sicariis, passed during the dictatorship of Sylla, B.C. 80.

6. Alia deinde lex asperrimum crimen nova pœna persequitur, quæ Pompeia de parricidiis vocatur. Qua cavetur, ut, si quis parentis aut filii aut omnino adfectionis ejus, quæ nuncupatione parricidii continetur, fata properaverit, sive clam sive palam id ausus fuerit, nec non is, cujus dolo malo id factum est, vel conscius criminis existit, licet extraneus sit, pœna parricidii puniatur et neque gladio neque ignibus neque ulli alii sollemni pœnæ subjugetur, sed insutus culeo cum cane et gallo gallinaceo et vipera et simia et inter ejus ferales angustias comprehensus, secundum quod regionis qualitas tulerit, vel in vicinum mare vel in amnem projiciatur, ut omni elementorum usu vivus carere incipiat, et ei cælum superstiti, terra mortuo auferatur. Si quis autem alias cognatione vel adfinitate conjunctas personas necaverit, poenam legis Corneliæ de sicariis sustinebit.

6. Another law, the lex Pompeia de parricidiis, inflicts on the most horrible of crimes a strange punishment. It provides, that any one who has hastened the death of a parent or child, or of any other relation whose murder is legally termed parricide, whether he acts openly or secretly, and whoever instigates or is an accomplice in the commission of the crime, although a stranger, shall undergo the penalty of parricide. He will be punished, not by the sword, nor by fire, nor by any ordinary mode of punishment, but he is to be sewed up in a sack with a dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and enclosed in this horrible prison he is to be, according to the nature of the place, thrown into the sea, or into a river, that even in his lifetime he may begin to be deprived of the use of the elements, and that the air may be denied to him while he lives, and the earth when he dies. He who kills persons allied to him by cognation or alliance, shall undergo the penalty of the lex Cornelia de sicariis.

D. xlviii. 9. 1. 9; C. ix. 17.

Lex Pompeia de parricidiis, passed in the consulship of Pompeius, B.C. 52. The punishment mentioned in the text is borrowed from the legislation of the Twelve Tables. The lex Pompeia, under the term parricidium, embraced the murder of any ascendant, of a husband or wife, of consobrini, of a step-father, stepmother, father-in-law, mother-in-law, &c., of a patron, and of a child if killed by the mother or grandfather, but not if killed by the father. (D. xlviii. 9. 1.) If there was no river at hand, the offender was torn to pieces by wild beasts. (D. xlviii. 9. 9.)

7. Item lex Cornelia de falsis, quæ etiam testamentaria vocatur, poenam irrogat ei, qui testamentum vel aliud instrumentum falsum scripserit, signaverit, recitaverit, subjecerit, quive signum adulterinum fecerit, sculpserit, expresserit sciens dolo malo. Ejusque legis pœna in servos ultimum supplicium est, quod et in lege de sicariis et veneficis servatur, in liberos vero deportatio.

7. Also the lex Cornelia de falsis, otherwise called testamentaria, punishes any one who shall have written, sealed, read, or substituted a false testament, or any other instrument, or shall have made, cut, or impressed a false seal, knowingly and wilfully. The penalty is, upon a slave, the extreme punishment of the law, as is pronounced by the lex Cornelia upon assassins and poisoners; that upon freemen is deportation.

D. xlviii. 10. 1. 13. 16. 1.

Lex Cornelia de falsis, or Cornelia testamentaria, was passed under the dictatorship of Sylla, B.C. 80.

8. Item lex Julia de vi publica seu privata adversus eos exoritur, qui vim vel armatam vel sine armis commiserint. Sed si quidem armata vis arguatur, deportatio ei ex lege Julia de vi publica irrogatur si vero sine armis, in tertiam partem bonorum publicatio imponitur. Sin autem per vim raptus virginis vel viduæ vel sanctimonialis, velatæ vel aliæ, fuerit perpetratus, tunc et peccatores et ei, qui opem flagitio dederunt, capite puniuntur secundum nostræ constitutionis definitionem, ex qua hæc apertius possibile est scire.

8. Also the lex Julia de vi publica seu privata punishes those who are guilty of violence, whether with armed force or without. For violence with armed force, the penalty inflicted by the lex Julia de vi publica is deportation. For violence without arms, it is the confiscation of a third of the offender's property. But in case of the rape of a virgin, a widow, a person devoted to religion, whether wearing the veil or not, both the ravishers and all who have aided in the commission of the crime are punished capitally, according to the provisions of our constitution, in which may be found fuller information on this head.

D. xlviii. 6. 10. 2; C. ix. 13. 1. pr. and foll.

Lex Julia de vi, passed in the time of Julius Cæsar or Augustus, but its exact date is not known.

9. Lex Julia peculatus eos punit, qui pecuniam vel rem publicam vel sacram vel religiosam furati fuerint. Sed si quidem ipsi judices tempore administrationis publicas pecunias subtraxerunt, capitali animadversione puniuntur, et non solum hi, sed etiam qui ministerium eis ad hoc adhibuerunt vel qui subtracta ab his scientes susceperunt: alii vero, qui in hanc legem inciderint, pœnæ deportationis subjugantur.

9. Also the lex Julia peculatus punishes those who have stolen public money, or anything sacred or religious. Magistrates, who, during the time of their administration, have stolen the public money, are punishable capitally, as also are all who aid them in their robbery, or who knowingly receive their plunder from them. Other persons who offend against this law are subject to the penalty of deportation.

D. xlviii. 13. 1. 3; C. ix. 28.

Lex Julia peculatus. The exact date of this law is also unknown. It probably belongs to the same epoch as the lex Julia de vi.

10. Est et inter publica judicia lex Fabia de plagiariis, quæ inter

10. There is also among the laws giving rise to public prosecutions the