was apt to inquire the consequences of it, and what effects he could do with it. And now I add this other degree of the same excellence, that he can by words reduce the consequences he finds to general rules, called "theorems," or "aphorisms;" that is, he can reason, or reckon, not only in number, but in all other things, whereof one may be added unto, or subtracted from another.

But this privilege is allayed by another; and that is, by the privilege of absurdity; to which no living creature is subject, but man only. And of men, those are of all most subject to it, that profess philosophy. For it is most true that Cicero saith of them somewhere; that there can be nothing so absurd, but may be found in the books of philosophers. And the reason is manifest. For there is not one of them that begins his ratiocination from the definitions, or explications of the names they are to use; which is a method that hath been used only in geometry; whose conclusions have thereby been made indisputable.

1. The first cause of absurd conclusions I ascribe to the want of method; in that they begin not their ratiocination from definitions; that is, from settled significations of their words; as if they could cast account, without knowing the value of the numeral words "one,' two," and "three."

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And whereas all bodies enter into account upon divers considerations, which I have mentioned in the precedent chapter; these considerations being diversely named, divers absurdities proceed from the confusion, and unfit connection of their names into assertions. And therefore,

II. The second cause of absurd assertions, I ascribe to the giving of names of "bodies" to "accidents;" or of "accidents to "bodies; as they do that say, "faith is infused," or "inspired;" " when nothing can be "poured" or "breathed" into anything, but body; and that "extension" is "body; that "phantasms" are 66 spirits," &c.

III. The third I ascribe to the giving of the names of the "accidents" of "bodies without us," to the "accidents" of our "own bodies;" as they do that say, "the colour is in the body;" "the sound is in the air," &c. IV. The fourth, to the giving of the names of "bodies" to "names," or "speeches; as they do that say, that "there be things universal;" that "a living creature is genus," or a general thing," &c.

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v. The fifth, to the giving of the names of "accidents" to "names" and "speeches ; as they do that say, "the nature of a thing is its definition; a man's command is his will;" and the like.

VI. The sixth, to the use of metaphors, tropes, and other rhetorical figures, instead of words proper. For though it be lawful to say, for example, in common speech, "the way goeth, or leadeth hither or thither;' "the proverb says this or that," whereas ways cannot go, nor proverbs speak; yet in reckoning, and seeking of truth, such speeches are not to be admitted.

VII. The seventh, to names that signify nothing; but are taken up and learned by rote from the schools, as "hypostatical," "transubstantiate," "consubstantiate," "eternal-now," and the like canting of schoolmen.

To him that can avoid these things it is not easy to fall into any absurdity, unless it be by the length of an account; wherein he may perhaps forget what went before. For all men by nature reason alike, and well, when they have good principles. For who is so stupid, as both to mistake in geometry, and also to persist in it, when another detects his error to him? By this it appears that reason is not, as sense and memory, born with us; nor gotten by experience only, as prudence is; but attained by industry; first in apt imposing of names; and secondly by getting a good and orderly method in proceeding from the elements, which are names, to assertions made by connection of one of them to another; and so to syllogisms, which

are the connections of one assertion to another, till we come to a knowledge of all the consequences of names appertaining to the subject in hand; and that is it, men call "science." And whereas sense and memory are but knowledge of fact, which is a thing past and irrevocable. "Science" is the knowledge of consequences, and dependence of one fact upon another : by which, out of that we can presently do, we know how to do something else when we will, or the like another time; because when we see how anything comes about, upon what causes, and by what manner; when the like causes come into our power, we see how to make it produce the like effects.

Children therefore are not endued with reason at all, till they have attained the use of speech; but are called reasonable creatures, for the possibility apparent of having the use of reason in time to come. And the most part of men, though they have the use of reasoning a little way, as in numbering to some degree; yet it serves them to little use in common life; in which they govern themselves, some better, some worse, according to their differences of experience, quickness of memory, and inclinations to several ends; but specially according to good or evil fortune, and the errors of one another. For as for "science," or certain rules of their actions, they are so far from it, that they know not what it is. Geometry they have thought conjuring: but for other sciences, they who have not been taught the beginnings and some progress in them, that they may see how they be acquired and generated, are in this point like children, that having no thought of generation, are made believe by the women that their brothers and sisters are not born, but found in the garden.

But yet they that have no "science," are in better and nobler condition, with their natural prudence; than men, that by mis-reasoning, or by trusting them that reason wrong, fall upon false and absurd general rules. For ignorance of causes, and of rules, does not set men so far out of their way, as relying on false rules, and taking for causes of what they aspire to, those that are not so, but rather causes of the contrary.

To conclude, the light of human minds is perspicuous words, but by exact definitions first snuffed, and purged from ambiguity; "reason is the "pace; increase of "science," the "way;" and the benefit of mankind, the “end." And, on the contrary, metaphors, and senseless and ambiguous words, are like ignes fatui; and reasoning upon them is wandering amongst innumerable absurdities and their end, contention and sedition, or contempt.

As much experience, is "prudence ; so, is much science "sapience." For though we usually have one name of wisdom for them both, yet the Latins did always distinguish between prudentia and sapientia; ascribing the former to experience, the latter to science. But to make their difference appear more clearly, let us suppose one man endued with an excellent natural use and dexterity iu handling his arms; and another to have added to that dexterity, an acquired science, of where he can offend, or be offended by his adversary, in every possible posture or guard: the ability of the former, would be to the ability of the latter, as prudence to sapience; both useful; but the latter infallible. But they that trusting only to the authority of books, follow the blind blindly, are like him that, trusting to the false rules of a master of fence, ventures presumptuously upon an adversary, that either kills or disgraces him.

The signs of science are, some certain and infallible; some, uncertain. Certain, when he that pretendeth the science of anything, can teach the same; that is to say, demonstrate the truth thereof perspicuously to another; uncertain, when only some particular events answer to his pretence, and upon many occasions prove so as he says they must. Signs

of prudence are all uncertain; because to observe by experience, and remember all circumstances that may alter the success, is impossible. But in any business, whereof a man has not infallible science to proceed by; to forsake his own natural judgment, and be guided by general sentences read in authors, and subject to many exceptions, is a sign of folly, and generally scorned by the name of pedantry. And even of those men themselves, that in councils of the commonwealth love to show their reading of politics and history, very few do it in their domestic affairs, where their particular interest is concerned; having prudence enough for their private affairs: but in public they study more the reputation of their own wit, than the success of another's business.

CHAPTER VI.

Of the Interior Beginnings of Voluntary Motions; commonly called the Passions; and the Speeches by which they are expressed.

THERE be in animals, two sorts of "motions" peculiar to them: one called "vital;" begun in generation, and continued without interruption throug! their whole life; such as are the "course" of the "blood," the "pulse," the "breathing," the "concoction, nutrition, excretion," &c., to which motions there needs no help of imagination: the other is "animal motion," otherwise called "voluntary motion; " as to "go," to "speak," to "move any of our limbs, in such manner as is first fancied in our minds. That sense is motion in the organs and interior parts of man's body, caused by the action of the things we see, hear, &c.; and that fancy is but the relics of the same motion, remaining after sense, has been already seen in the first and second chapters. And because "going," " 'speaking," and the like voluntary motions, depend always upon a precedent thought of "whither," "which way," and "what; it is evident, that the imagination is the first internal beginning of ali voluntary motion. And although unstudied men do not conceive any motion at all to be there, where the thing moved is invisible; or the space it is moved in is, for the shortness of it, insensible; yet that doth not hinder, but that such motions are. For let a space be never so little, that which is moved over a greater space, whereof that little one is part, must first be moved over that. These small beginnings of motion, within the body of man, before they appear in walking, speaking, striking, and other visible actions, are commonly called "endeavour."

This endeavour, when it is toward something which causes it, is called "appetite," or "desire;" the latter, being the general name; and the other oftentimea restrained to signify the desire of food, namely "hunger and "thirst." And when the endeavour is fromward something, it is generally called "aversion." These words, " appetite" and "aversion," we have from the Latins; and they both of them signify the motions, one of approaching, the other of retiring. So also do the Greek words for the same, which are opμn and apopun. For Nature itself does often press upon men those truths, which afterwards, when they look for somewhat beyond Nature, they stumble at. For the schools find in mere appetite to go, or move, no actual motion at all: but because some motion they must acknowledge, they call it metaphorical motion; which is but an absurd speech : for though words may be called metaphorical, bodies and motions cannot.

That which men desire, they are also said to "love" and to "hate" those things for which they have aversion. So that desire and love are the same thing; save that by desire, we always signify the absence of the

object; by love most commonly the presence of the same. So also by aversion, we signify the absence; and by hate, the presence of the object. Of appetites and aversions, some are born with men ; as appetite of food, appetite of excretion, and exoneration, which may also and more properly be called aversions, from somewhat they feel in their bodies; and some other appetites, not many. The rest, which are appetites of particular things, proceed from experience, and trial of their effects upon themselves or other men. For of things we know not at all, or believe not to be, we can have no further desire than to taste and try. But aversion we have for things, not only which we know have hurt us, but also that we do not know whether they will hurt us, or not.

Those things which we neither desire, nor hate, we are said to contemn; contempt" being nothing else but an immobility, or contumacy of the heart, in resisting the action of certain things; and proceeding from that the heart is already moved otherwise, by other more potent objects; or from want of experience of them.

And because the constitution of a man's body is in continual mutation, iz is impossible that all the same things should always cause in him the same appetites and aversions: much less can all men consent, in the desire of almost any one and the same objeet.

But whatsoever is the object of any man's appetite or desire, that is it which he for his part calleth “good: " and the object of his hate and aversion, "evil;" and of his contempt, “vile" and "inconsiderable." For these words of good, evil, and contemptible, are ever used with relation to the person that useth them: there being nothing simply and absolutely so; nor any common rule of good and evil, to be taken from the nature of the objects themselves; but from the person of the man, where there is no commonwealth; or, in a commonwealth, from the person that representeth it; or from an arbitrator or judge, whom men disagreeing shall by consent set up, and make his sentence the rule thereof.

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The Latin tongue has two words, whose significations approach to those of good and evil; but are not precisely the same; and those are pulchrum and turpe. Whereof the former signifies that, which by some apparent signs promiseth good; and the latter, that which promiseth evil. But in our tongue we have not so general names to express them by. But for pulchrum we say in some things, "fair;" in others, "beautiful," or "handsome," or gallant," or "honourable," or "comely," or "amiable; " and for turpe, "foul," "deformed," "ugly," "base," ""nauseous," and the like, as the subject shall require; all which words, in their proper places, signify nothing else but the "mien," or countenance, that promiseth good and evil. So that of good there be three kinds; good in the promise, that is pulchrum: good in effect, as the end desired, which is called jucundum, "delightful;" and good as the means, which is called utile, "profitable ;" and as many of evil: for "evil" in promise, is that they call turpe; evil in effect, and end, is molestum, "unpleasant," ," "troublesome ;" and evil in the means, inutile, unprofitable,' hurtful."

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so,

As, in sense, that which is really within us, is, as I have said before, only motion, caused by the action of external objects, but in apparence; to the sight, light and colour; to the ear, sound; to the nostril, odour, &c. when the action of the same object is continued from the eyes, ears, and other organs to the heart, the real effect there is nothing but motion, or endeavour; which consisteth in appetite, or aversion, to or from the objec moving. But the apparence, or sense of that motion, is that we either call "delight," or trouble of mind.”

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This motion, which is called appetite, and for the apparence of it "delight," and "pleasure," seemeth to be a corroboration of vital motion, and

a help thereunto; and therefore such things as caused delight, were not improperly called jucunda, à juvando, from helping or fortifying; and the contrary molesta, "offensive," from hindering, and troubling the motion

vital.

Pleasure" therefore, or "delight," is the apparence, or sense of good; and "molestation," or displeasure," the apparence, or sense of evil. And consequently all appetite, desire, and love, is accompanied with some delight more or less; and all hatred and aversion, with more or less displeasure and offence.

Of pleasures or delights, some arise from the sense of an object present; and those may be called "pleasure of sense;" the word "sensual," as it is used by those only that condemn them, having no place till there be laws. Of this kind are all onerations and exonerations of the body; as also all that is pleasant, in the "sight," "hearing," "smell," "taste," or "touch." Others arise from the expectation, that proceeds from foresight of the end, or consequence of things; whether those things in the sense please or displease. And these are "pleasures of the mind" of him that draweth those consequences, and are generally called "joy." In the like manner, displeasures are some in the sense, and called "pain ;" others in the expectation of consequences, and are called "grief."

These simple passions called "appetite,' ," "desire," "love," "aversion," "hate," "joy," and "grief," have their names for divers considerations diversified. As first, when they one succeed another, they are diversely called from the opinion men have of the likelihood of attaining what they desire. Secondly, from the object loved or hated. Thirdly, from the consideration of many of them together. Fourthly, from the alteration or succession itself.

For "appetite," with an opinion of attaining, is called "hope."
The same, without such opinion, "despair.'

Aversion," with opinion of "hurt" from the object, “fear.”

The same, with hope of avoiding that hurt by resistance, "courage." Sudden "courage, 59.66 anger."

Constant "hope," "confidence" of ourselves.

Constant "despair,'
""diffidence of ourselves.

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Anger" for great hurt done to another, when we conceive the same to

be done by injury, "indignation.'

"Desire" of good to another, "benevolence," "good will," "charity.” If to man generally, "good-nature.' "Desire" of riches, 66 covetousness ;" a name used always in signification of blame; because men contending for them, are displeased with one another attaining them; though the desire in itself, be to be blamed, or allowed, according to the means by which these riches are sought.

"Desire" of office, or precedence, "ambition:" a name used also in the worse sense, for the reason before mentioned.

"Desire" of things that conduce but a little to our ends, and fear of things that are but of little hindrance, "pusillanimity."

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"Contempt" of little helps and hindrances, " magnanimity." "Magnanimity," in danger of death or wounds, valour,' ""fortitude." "Magnanimity" in the use of riches, "liberality."

"Pusillanimity" in the same, "wretchedness," "miserableness," or "parsimony;" as it is liked or disliked.

"Love" of persons for society, "kindness.”

"Love" of persons for pleasing the sense only, "natural lust.”

"Love" of the same, acquired from rumination, that is, imagination of pleasure past, "luxury."

"Love" of one singularly, with desire to be singularly beloved,

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