Secondary clauses are sometimes distinguished by the names of the parts of speech that introduce them. 1. When a secondary clause begins with an adjective, it is called an Adjective clause; as, The rook is a social bird, fond of living about the abodes of men. 2. When it begins with a relative, it is called a Relative clause; as, Arkwright, who invented the spinning-frame, was originally a hairdresser. 3. When it begins with an adverb, it is called an Adverbial clause; as, Whilst seated at table, a letter was handed to him by one of his pages. 4. When it begins with a participle, it is called a Participial clause; as, A boy, smitten with the colours of a butterfly, pursued it from flower to flower. 5. When it begins with a conjunction or preposition, it is called a Conjunctive or Connective clause; as, Despise not any condition, lest it happen to be your own lot; David, on hearing of the death of Absalom, gave way to a transport of grief. 6. When it begins with an infinitive, it is called an Infinitive clause; as, To add to the beauty of the scene, the sun shone forth in all its splendour. 7. When it contains the nominative independent, it is called an Absolute or Independent clause; as, Success being now hopeless, preparations were made for a retreat. 8. When it contains a noun or pronoun placed in apposition to a preceding word or clause, it is called an Apposition clause; as, The house martin arrives in this country a few days later than the swallow-a circumstance attributed to its smaller expanse of wing and inferior powers of flight; Brutus killed Cæsar in the Capitol-him who was his friend. Secondary clauses are also denominated according to the nature of their connexion with principal clauses. 1. When a secondary clause expresses a condition, it is called a Conditional or Contingent clause; as, If we are industrious, we shall never want. Conditional clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctions, if, unless, except. 2. When it contains a reason or cause, it is called a Causal clause; as, As he was ambitious, I slew him. Causal clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctions, as, for, because, since. 3. When it follows as an effect or consequence, it is called an Inferential or Consequent clause; as, The day was so stormy, that he could not proceed on his journey. Consequent clauses are generally intro-. duced by the conjunctions, that, therefore, wherefore. 4. When it expresses comparison, it is called a Comparative clause; as, The sun is larger than the moon; John is as tall as his brother. Comparative clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctions, than, as. 5. When it denotes concession, it is called a Concessive clause; as, Although he was rich, he was far from being happy. Concessive clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctions, though, although. 6. When it contains an explanation, it is called an Explanatory clause; as, Mount Ararat, on which Noah's Ark rested, is in Turkey in Asia. Explanatory clauses may be introduced by a noun, adjective, pronoun, participle, adverb, or preposition. Principal clauses may also be denominated according to the nature of their connexion with one another. 1. When they are placed in the relation of equality to each other, they may be called Equivalent clauses; as, Rome and Carthage were great cities; neither the father nor the son was present. Equivalent clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctions, both, and, also, either, or, neither, nor. 2. When they express opposition or contrast, they may be called Adversative or Antithetical clauses; as, The wicked are overthrown; but the house of the righteous shall stand. Adversative clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctions, but, yet, however. The separation of a complex sentence into the different propositions of which it is composed is called Analysis. EXAMPLE.-The elephant, which, in size and strength, surpasses all land animals, is a native both of Asia and Africa. ANALYSIS.-The elephant surpasses all land animals in size. The elephant surpasses all land animals in strength. The elephant is a native of Asia. The elephant is a native of Africa. The combination of several propositions into one sentence is called Synthesis. EXAMPLE.-The cassowary is a large bird. This bird is found in Java. This bird is found in several parts of Africa. SYNTHESIS.—The cassowary is a large bird, which is found in Java and several parts of Africa. SECTION II. DISTINCTION OF PRINCIPAL AND SECONDARY CLAUSES IN THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. EXERCISES. 1. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing one principal and one secondary clause, and underline the principal. 2. Write the three complex sentences in the fol lowing paragraph containing one principal and two secondary clauses, and underline the principal. 3. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing one principal and three secondary clauses, and underline the principal. 4. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing two principal clauses. 5. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing three principal clauses. 6. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing one principal and two co-ordinate secondary clauses. 7. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and two secondary clauses, one of which is subordinate to the other. PARAGRAPH FOR EXERCISES. A French merchant vessel was once wrecked in a storm near Beachy Head, which is on the coast of Sussex. All the men were washed overboard, and only four escaped from the sea. They climbed to the top of a heap of rocks which had fallen from the cliff above, where they expected every moment to be swallowed up by the waves. The night was dark, the storm raged furiously, and the shipwrecked mariners were in despair. In this miserable condition, one of them informed his companions that he had found a plant among the rocks, which he knew to be samphire. He also cheered them with the intelligence that this plant, which grows on the sea shore, is never found in places within reach of the waves. They therefore waited patiently until morning, when they were seen by the people on the cliffs, who immediately came to their assistance, and relieved them from their perilous position. EXERCISES. 1. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and adjective clause. 2. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and relative clause. 3. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and adverbial clause. 4. Write the two complex sentences in the following paragraph containing a principal and participial clause. 5. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and connective clause. 6. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and infinitive clause. 7. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and absolute clause. 8. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph containing a principal and apposition clause. PARAGRAPH FOR EXERCISES. fine An East Indian tailor was one day making some very clothes at the window of his shop, which looked into the street. An elephant, passing along to the water, put in his trunk at the window. Harmless in its disposition, the elephant did not intend to do any injury. The tailor, however, actuated by a spirit of wanton mischief, pricked the trunk with his needle. The sagacious animal, perfectly sensible of the insult, pursued its journey. In a short time after, it reappeared, its trunk being filled with water. It had evidently formed a resolution to punish the tailor for his incivility. Accordingly, by spouting a quantity of water into the window, it completely destroyed all the fine clothes. The story contains a moral -the folly of indulging in wanton mischief. EXERCISES. 1. Write the three complex sentences in the following paragraph which contain a conditional clause, and underline it. 2. Write the complex sentence in the following paragraph which contains a causal clause, and underline it. 3. Write the three complex sentences in the fol |