tide, increasing by heavy rains, and flow. ing out into the sea, which it often discolours to a considerable distance from the shore, so that the line which divides the two colours may be perceived distinctly for a great length along the coast. FRET, or FRETTE, in architecture, a kind of knot or ornament, consisting of two lists or small fillets, variously interlaced or interwoven, and running at pa rallel distances equal to their breadth. FRET, in heraldry, a bearing composed of six bars, crossed, and variously interlaced. FRET, in music, signifies a kind of stop on some instruments, particularly bass. viols and lutes. Frets consist of strings tied round the neck of the instrument at certain distances, within which such and such notes are to be found. FRET work, that adorned with frets. It is sometimes used to fill up and enrich flat empty spaces, but is mostly practised in roots, which are fretted over with plaster-work. The Italians also use fret-works in the mantling of chimneys, with great figures; a cheap piece of magnificence, and as durable almost within doors, as harder matters in the weather. FRICTION, in mechanics, the rubbing of the parts of engines and machines against each other, by which means a great part of their effect is destroyed. It is hardly possible to lay down gene ral rules concerning the quantity of friction, since it depends upon a multiplicity of circumstances, as the structure, firmness, elasticity, &c. of the bodies rubbing against each other. Some authors make friction upon an horizontal plane, equal to one-third of the weight to be moved; whilst others have found it to be considerably less. Two objects must, how ever, be observed, viz. the loss of power which is occasioned by it, and the contrivances which have been made, and are in use, for the purpose of diminishing its effects. A body of a horizontal plane should be capable of being moved by the application of the least force; but this is not the case, and the principal causes, which render a greater or less quantity of force necessary for it, are, 1, the rough ness of the contiguous surfaces; 2, the irregularity of the figure, which arises either from the imperfect workmanship, or from the pressure of one body from the other; 3, an adhesion, or attraction, which is more or less powerful, according to the nature of the bodies in question; and 4, the interposition of ex traneous bodies, such as moisture, dust, &c. Innumerable experiments have been made for the purpose of determining the quantity of obstruction, or of friction, which is produced in particular circumstances. But the results of apparently similar experiments, which have been made by different experimenters, do not agree; nor is it likely they should, since the least difference of smoothness or polish, or of hardness, or, in short, of any of the various concurring circumstances, produces a different result. Hence no certain and determinate rules can be laid down with respect to the subject of fric. tion. Mr. Vince, who has done much on this subject, infers, 1, That friction is an uniformly retarding force in hard bodies, not subject to alteration by the velocity, except when the body is covered with cloth, woollen, &c. and in this case the friction increases a little with the velocity. 2, Friction increases in a less ratio than the quantity of matter or weight of the body. This increase, however, is differ-ent for the different bodies, more or less, nor is it yet sufficiently known for any one body, what proportion the increase of friction bears to the increase of weight. 3, The smallest surface has the least friction, the weight being the same. But the ratio of the friction to the surface is not yet accurately known. Mr. Vince's experiments consisted in determining how far the sliding bodies would be drawn in given times, by a weight hanging freely over a pulley. This method would both show him if the friction was a constant retarding force, and the other conclusions above stated. For as the spaces describ ed by any constant force, in given times, are as the squares of the times, and as the weight drawing the body is a constant force, if the friction, which acts in opposition to the weight, should also be a constant force, then their difference, or the force by which the body is urged, will also be constant; in which case the spaces described ought to be as the squares of the times, which happened accordingly in the experiments. The friction, ceteris paribus, increases with the weight of the superincumbent body, and almost in the same proportion. The friction, or obstruction which arises from the bending of ropes about machines, is influenced by a variety of circumstances, such as their peculiar quality, the temperature of the atmosphere, and the diameter, or curvature of the surface to which they are to be adapted. But when other circumstances remain the same, the difficulty of bending a rope increases with the square of its diameter, as also with its tension; and it decreases according as the radius of the curvature of the body to which it is adapted increases. Of the simple mechanical powers, the lever is the least subject to friction. In a wheel, the friction upon the axis is as the weight that lies upon it, as the diameter of the axis, and as the velocity of the motion. But upon the whole this sort of friction is not very great, provided the machine is well executed. In common pullies, especially those of a small size, the friction is very great. It increases in proportion as the diameter of the axis increases, as the velocity increases, and as the diameter of the pully decreases. With a moveable tackle or block of 5 pullies, a pow. er of 150 pounds will barely be able to draw up a weight of 500 pounds. The screw is subject to a great deal of friction; so much so, that the power which must be applied to it, in order to produce a given effect, is at least double that which is given by the calculation, independent of friction. But the degree of friction in the screw is influenced considerably by the nature of the construction, for much of it is owing to the tightness of the screw, to the distance between its threads, and to the shape of the threads; the square threads producing, upon the whole, less friction than those which are sharp. The friction which attends the use of the wedge exceeds, in general, that of any other simple mechanical pow er. Its quantity depends so much upon the nature of the body upon which the wedge acts, besides other circumstances, that itis impossible to give even an approximate estimate of it. The friction of mechanical engines not only diminishes the effect, or, which is the same thing, occasions a loss of power, but is attended with the corrosion and wear of the principal parts of the machine, besides producing a considerable degree of heat, and even actual fire; it is, therefore, of great importance in mechanics to contrive means capable of diminishing, if not of quite removing, the effects of friction. The methods of obtaining the important object of diminishing the friction are of two sorts, viz. either by the interposition of particular unctuous or oily substances between the contiguous moving parts, or by particular mechanical contrivances. Olive-oil is the best, and perhaps the only substance that can be used in small works, as in watches and clocks, when metal works against metal. FRICTION, is a term made use of in medicine, and implies the act of rubbing a diseased part with oils, or other substances. Friction is also applied to the rubbing the human body with a fleshbrush, flannel, &c.; but the most important purpose of this kind of friction is for the introduction of mercury into the habit by means of the skin, instead of the mouth. FRIEND, or quaker. A society of dissenters from the church of England ob. tained the latter appellation in the middle of the seventeenth century; the former they had before applied, and continue to apply, to themselves. The first preacher of this society was George Fox, a man of humble birth, and illiterate. The undertaking to which he considered himself called, that of promulgating a more simple and spiritual form of Christianity than any of those which prevailed, and of directing the attention of Christians to immediate revelation, required little more reading than that of the Bible. A constant reference to the scriptures, with great zeal, courage, and perseverance, in preaching and suffering, did more than literature could have done to spread his doctrine among the middle and lower classes. The most prominent feature in the Friends' view of Christianity, is this: seeing no man knoweth the Father, but the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal him; and seeing the revelation of the Son is in and by the Spirit; therefore the testimony of the Spirit is that alone by which the true knowledge of God is revealed. In this doctrine they agree, in substance, with the church of England, and all others who acknowledge the efficacy of grace. For in whatever way this is afforded to Christians, it is powerfully given to know and to do the will of God; and the communication of grace may be termed, in strict consistency with the sense of the New Testament, a revelation of Christ in the Spirit. The Friends receive the Holy Scriptures as having proceeded from the revelations of the Holy Spirit; they account them the secondary rule for Christians, subordinate to the word, and therefore not the word of God. According to these they profess their belief in one God, as Father, Word, and Holy Spirit; in one Mediator, the Word made flesh, Jesus Christ; in the conception, birth, life, miracles, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus; and in the remission of sins thereby purchased for the whole world of fallen mankind. Christ's redemption they believe to be perfected in us by his second coming in spirit; in which they who obey him are, through the obedience of faith, restored from their state of alienation, and reconciled to God. They affirm, that for this end there is given to every man a measure of the light of Christ, (called, by their early preachers, the light within) a manifestation of the Spirit to profit withal; which discovers sin, reproves for it, leads out of it, and, if not resisted, will save from it, and lead on the Christian to perfection. In public wor ship, they profess to wait on God in this gift, in order to have their conditions made manifest, in silence and retirement of mind. They look for an extraordinary motion of it for social worship, and considering the qualification of a minister as a further gift which God confers, and of which the church ought to judge in the same spirit, they do not limit its exercise to any description of persons. They suffer some inconvenience hereby, as they acknowledge; but they prefer bearing this to the establishing of any form of worship, save the fore-mentioned waiting in silence. They do not baptize formally, or use the sign of the communion; they say, the one has ceased as to obliga tion, and that the true administration of the other is by the spirit alone. They deem it unlawful for Christians to swear at all; and their affirmation in civil causes is made legal instead of an oath. They refuse to "learn war, or to lift up the sword," as well as to contribute directly to military proceedings. Yet, as they inculcate implicit submission, actively or passively, to Cæsar, they neither resist nor evade the legal appropriation of their substance by him, as well to these as to ecclesiastical purposes. Against the claims of the clergy, as well as many other things apparently lawful, they say, in their phraseology, they have a testimony to bear. Some peculiarities mark them out from their fellow-citizens. Simplicity in dress, in some instances nearly amounting to an adherence to their original, though not prescribed, costume; simplicity of language, thou to one person, and without compliments; simplicity in their manners of living; the non-observance of fasts and feasts; the rejection of those which they call the unchristian names of days and months; and the renunciation of the theatres and other promiscuous amusements, gaming, and the usual outward signs of mourning and rejoicing, may be considered as their shibboleth. They marry among themselves by a ceremony, or contract, religiously conducted, and bury their dead in the most simple manner. They maintain their poor, and enforce their own rules, by means of an excellent system of discipline, founded by G. Fox. They receive approved applicants into their society by an act of monthly meet. ing, or particular congregation, and without subscription of articles. They disown, in the same manner, after repeated admonition, not officially only, but actually extended, to offenders against morality, or their peculiar rules. FRIEZE, FREEZE, or FRIZE, in architecture, a large flat face, or member, separating the architrave from the cornice, being that part of the entablature between the architrave and cornice. See ARCHITECTURE. FRIGATE, among seamen, a ship of war, light built, and that is a good sailer. A frigate has commonly two decks, whence that called a light frigate is a frigate with only one deck. These vessels mount from 20 to 44 guns, and make capital cruizers. Merchantmen are said to be frigate built, when the disposition of the decks have a descent of four or five steps from the quarter-deck and forecastle into the waist, in contradistinction to those whose decks are on a continued line for the whole length of the ship, which are called galley-built. Formerly the name of frigate was only known in the Mediterranean, and applied to a kind of long vessels, navigated in that sea with sails and oars. Our countrymen were the first who appeared on the ocean with those ships, and equipped them for war as well as commerce. FRINGILLA, the finch, in natural history, a genus of birds of the order Passe res. Generic character: bill perfectly conic; slender towards the end, and extremely pointed. Many of this tribe are truly admirable, both for the elegance of their plumage, and the vivacity and melody of their song. Latham enumerates 96 species, and Gmelin 111; of which we shall notice the following: F. domestica, or the house sparrow of Europe, is never found remote from human habitations; but, following the society of man, builds under the roofs of houses, and in the holes of walls, and will frequently expel the martin from its nest, to save itself the trouble of preparing one of its own. It breeds generally three times in a year. By the destruction of caterpillars, these birds are eminently serviceable; but their favourite food is grain, to procure which they are constant attendants at the barndoor, and notwithstanding every effort to scare them, will dare every danger to partake of the repasts of the poultry and pigeons. They are particularly sagacious as well as daring, and can, with great difficulty only, be decoyed by traps. Their sounds are harsh and grating, their disVOL. V. positions irascible, and their manners intrusive. F. cœlebs, or the chaffinch, is found in England throughout the year, and builds its nest with extreme care and neatness, lining it with hair, wool, and feathers. It is sprightly in its movements, and beautiful in its plumage; but can boast no peculiar powers of melody. The most singular circumstance attending this species of birds is, that, in some coun. tries, the males remain all the year round, while the females are migratory to the south, returning in the spring to their former habitations and companions. Flocks, composed only of females, have occasionally been seen in Hampshire. This circumstance is not peculiar to these birds, but affects equally some other descriptions. It is in itself, however, not a little curious, and merits attention. F. carduelis, or goldfinch, is common in Europe and to be found, though by no means so frequently, in Africa and Asia. It breeds twice a year, and feeds principally on seeds, and especially those of thistles, near which it prefers building its nest, which is formed with great compactness and skill. It begins to sing in April, and continues its song till the period of breeding is past. In confinement, however, it will sing for the greater part of the year. These birds are universally admired for the brilliancy of their plumage, and the melody of their sounds; and they possess, moreover, a docility, which renders them particularly interesting, learning, with ease, a variety of ingenious movements and exercises. They are long lived, and have been known to survive the age of twenty years. Buffon mentions the case of a goldfinch which sud. denly became black, and, after continuing so for eight months, resumed its former sprightly and elegant colouring this revolution was repeated at two subsequent periods. (See Aves, Plate VI. fig. 6.) F. spinus, or the siskin, is found in various parts of Europe, generally migratory, but at irregular periods, and in very unequal numbers; the larger flights being supposed by some naturalists to occur only once in several years. It hides its nest with particular caution: and though vast numbers are to be seen on the borders of the Danube, which have not lost their original feathers, their nests have been sought, it is said, in the neighbourhood with great assiduity, but in very few instances with success. It is nearly as tractable as the goldfinch, has great richness and variety of notes, and extraordinary power in imitating sounds. F. canaria, or canary finch. These birds Gg constitute, to some little extent, an article of commerce, being exported from the Tyrol in considerable numbers every year to various other parts of Europe. Buffon enumerates no fewer than 29 varieties, and devotes 50 pages of his celebrated work to an interesting detail of their manners, habits, and song. They are bred and reared in England in aviaries with great facility; and the fidelity of their attachments, and delicacy of their attentions, their extreme neatness, parental affection, and animated and almost incessant music, constitute a source of pure and exquisite entertainment to all the admirers of artless and interesting nature. F. linaria, or the linnet, is to be met with in every part of Europe and America, and is particularly common in England, where it builds, generally in thorns and furze bushes, and breeds twice in the year. Linnets feed on various seeds; but particularly relish those of the flax plant, from the Latin name for which (inum) they probably derive their name. They can be taught the notes of various other birds, and even to utter words with very distinct enunciation; but their natural song, expressive of tranquillity, and rapture, and poured out in a strain of richly varied melody, is infinitely superior to these unmeaning and elaborate articulations. Mr. Wilson enumerates 17 species as natives of the United States. For the red pole and the mountain-sparrow, see Aves, Plate VI. fig. 7 and 8. FRIT, in the glass manufacture, the matter or ingredients whereof glass is to be made, when they have been calcined or baked in a furnace; or it is the calcined matter to be run into glass. See GLASS. FRITILLARIA, in botany, imperial fritillary, or crown imperial, a genus of the Hexandria Monogynia class and order. Natural order of Coronaria. Lilia, Jussieu. There are five species, with many varieties. FRIZING of cloth, a term in the woollen manufacture, applied to the forming of the nap of cloth, or stuff, into a number of little hard burrs or prominences,covering almost the whole grouud thereof. Some cloths are only frized on the back side, as black cloths; others on the right side, as coloured and mixed cloths, rateens, bays, frizes, &c. Frizing may be performed two ways; one with the hand, that is, by means of two workmen, who conduct a kind of plank that serves for a frizing instrument. The other way is by a mill, worked eitheir by water, or a horse, or sometimes by men. This latter is esteemed the better way of frizing, by reason, the motion being uniform and regular, the little knobs of the frizing are formed more equably and regularly. The structure of this useful machine is as follows: The three principal parts are the frizer or crisper, the frizing-table, and the drawer or beam. The two first are two equal planks, or boards, each about ten feet long, and fifteen inches broad, differing only in this, that the frizing-table is lined or covered with a kind of coarse woollen stuff, of a rough sturdy nap; and the frizer is incrustated with a kind of cement composed of glue, gum arabic, and a yellow sand, with a little aquavitæ, or urine. The beam, or drawer, thus called because it draws the stuff from between the frizer and the frizing-table, is a wooden roller, beset all over with little, fine, short points, or ends of wire, like those of cards used in carding of wool. The disposition and use of the machine is thus the table stands immoveable, and bears or sustains the cloth to be frized, which is laid with that side uppermost on which the nap is to be raised: over the table is placed the frizer, at such a distance from it as to give room for the stuff to be passed between them, so that the frizer, having a very slow semicircular motion, meeting the long hairs or naps of the cloth, twists and rolls them into little knobs or burrs, while, at the same time, the drawer, which is continually turning, draws away the stuff from under the frizer, and winds it over its own points. All that the workman has to do while the machine is going is, to stretch the stuff on the table, as fast as the drawer takes it off'; and from time to time to take off the stuff from the points of the draw er. The design of having the frizing-table lined with stuff of a short, stiff, stubby nap, is, that it may detain the cloth between the table and the frizer long enough for the grain to be formed, that the drawer may not take it away too readily, which must otherwise be the case, as it is not held by any thing at the other end. FROG. See RANA. FRONDESCENTIA, in botany, a term expressive of the precise time of the year and month, in which each species of plants unfolds its first leaves. All plants produce new leaves every year; but all do not renew them at the same time. Among woody plants, the elder, and most of the honey-suckles; among perennial herbs, crocus and tulip are the first that push or expand their leaves. The time of sowing the seed decides with respect to |