FID former they gather that fruit which can only be brought to perfection by the assistance of the latter, or wild fig, which has been named caprificus, and in the country, ornos. This tree bears successively, in the same year, three sorts of fruit, to which the natives of the ArchipeJago have given different names. The first fruit, which they name fornites, are the autumnal figs; they appear in August, and fall in September and October. The second figs, called cratitires, are the winter figs, and remain on the trees from September till May; then come the third kind, or spring figs, known in the country by the name of orni. None of these fruits ripen, but they have a sleek even skin, of a deep green colour, and contain in their dry and mealy inside several male and female flowers, placed upon distinct footstalks, the former above the latter. In the first figs, or fornites, are bred small worms, which change to a species of cynips, peculiar to these trees. In October and November, these insects of themselves make a puncture into the second fruit, after which the autumnal figs fall; but the winter fruit, or cratitires, remain, as we have observed, till May, and enclose the eggs deposited by the gnats when they pricked them. In May, the third sort of fruit, called orni, begin to be produced by the wild fig-trees. This is much bigger than the other two; and when it grows to a certain size, and its bud begins to open, it is pricked in that part by the cynips of the winter figs, which are strong enough to go from one fruit to another to deposit their eggs. It sometimes happens that the insects of the cratitires are slow to come forth in certain parts, while the orni in those very parts are ready to receive them. In this case the husbandman is obliged to look for the cratitires in another part, and fix them at the ends of the branches of those fig-trees whose orni are fit to be pricked by the insects. If they miss the opportunity, the orni fall, and the insects from the winter figs fly away. None but those who are well acquainted with the culture know the critical moment of doing this; and in order to know it, their eye is perpetually fixed on the bud of the fig; for that part not only indicates the time that the insects are to issue forth, but also when the fig is to be successfully pricked: if the bud is too close, the fly cannot deposit its eggs; if, on the contrary, it is too open, the fruit falls to the ground. None of the wild figs are good to eat; their chief use is to assist in ripening the VOL. V. domestic kind, and the manner in which this is effected is as follows: during the months of June and July, the peasants take the orni at the time their insects are ready to break out, and carry them to the garden fig-trees; if they miss the proper time, the orni fall, and the fruit of the domestic fig will in consequence prove barren, and fall also. The natives are so well acquainted with these precious moments, that, every morning, in making their inspection, they only transfer to their garden fig-trees such orni as are well conditioned, otherwise they lose their crop. In this case, however, they have one remedy, which is to strew over the garden fig-trees another plant, in whose fruit there is also a species of insect, which, in some measure, answers the purpose. The countrymen so well understand how to manage their orni, that the flies which proceed from them ripen their domestic figs in the space of forty days. FIDDLE. See VIOLIN. FIELD, in heraldry, is the whole surface of the shield, or the continent, so called, because it containeth those achievements anciently acquired in the field of battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bearings, metals, furs, charges, &c. are represented. Among the modern heralds, field is less frequently used in blazoning than shield or escutcheon. See SHIELD, &c. FIELD book, in surveying, that wherein the angles, stations, distances, &c. are set down. See SURVEYING. FIELD colours, in war, are small flags of about a foot and a half square, which are carried along with the quarter-master general, for marking out the ground for the squadrons and battalions. FIELD fare, in ornithology, the English name of the variegated turdus, with a hoary head. See TURDUS. FIELD pieces, small cannons, from three to twelve pounders, carried along with an army in the field. See CANNON. FIELD staff, a weapon carried by the gunners, about the length of a halbert, with a spear at the end; having on each side, ears screwed on, like the cock of a match lock, where the gunners screw in lighted matches, when they are upon command; and then the field-staffs are said to be armed. FIELD works, in fortification, are those thrown up by an army in besieging a fortress, or by the besieged to defend the place. Such are the fortifications of camps, highways, &c. FIFE, in music, is a sort of wind in strument, being a small pipe. FIFTEENTH, an ancient tribute, or tax, laid upon cities, boroughs, &c. through all England, and so termed, because it amounted to a fifteenth part of what each city or town had been valued at; or it was a fifteenth of every man's personal estate, according to a reasonable valuation. In doomsday-book, there are certain rates mentioned for levying this tribute yearly; but since, any such tax cannot be levied but by parliament. FIFTH, in music, one of the harmonical intervals or concords. The fifth is the second in order of the concords, the ratio of the chord that affords it is 3: 2. It is called a fifth, as containing five terms or sounds between its extremes, and four degrees, so that in the natural scale of music it comes in the fifth place or order from the fundamental. The ancients called this fifth diapente. The im perfect and defective fifth, called by the ancients semi-diapente, is less than the fifth by a lesser semitone. FIG, the fruit of the ficus, or fig-tree. See FICUS. FIGURAL, or FIGURATE, numbers, are such as do or may represent some geometrical figure, in relation to which they are always considered as triangular numbers, pentagonal numbers, pyramidal numbers, &c. FIGURATE numbers, are distinguished into orders, according to their place in the Arithmetical. scale of their generation, being all pro duced one from another, viz. by adding continually the terms of any one, the suc cessive sums are the terms of the next order, beginning from the first order, which is that of equal units 1, 1, 1, 1, &c. ; then the 2d order consists of the succes sive sums of those of the first order, forming the arithmetical progression 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.; those of the 3d order the successive sums of those of the 2d, and are the triangular numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, &c.; those of the 4th order are the successive sums of those of the 3d, and are the pyramidal numbers 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c.; and so on, as below. Order. Name. Numbers. 1, &c. 1. Equals...1, 1, 1, 1, 2. Arithmetical....1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. 3. Triangulars.....1, 3, 6, 10, 15, &c. 4. Pyramidals.......1, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c. 5. 2 Pyramidals..1, 5, 15, 35, 70, &c. 6. 3d Pyramidals..1, 6, 21, 56, 126, &c. 7. 4th Pyramidals 1, 7, 28, 84, 210, &c. The above are all considered as different sorts of triangular numbers, being formed from an arithmetical progression, whose common difference is 1. But if that common difference is 2, the successive sums will be the series of square numbers; if it be 3, the series will be pentagonal numbers, or pentagons; if it be 4, the series will be hexagonal numbers, or hexagons, and so on. Thus : 1st. Sums or Polygons. 2d. Sums, or 2d. Polygons. And the reason of the names triangles, squares, pentagons, hexagons, &c. is, that those numbers may be placed in the form of these regular figures or polygons. The figurate numbers of any order may be found without computing those of the preceding order, which is done by taking the successive products of as many of the terms of the arithmeticals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. in their natural order, as there are units in the number which denominates the order of figurates required, and dividing those products always by the first product: thus the triangular numbers are found by dividing the products 1x2; 2x3; 3×4, &c. each by the first product 1, 6, 18, 40, 1, 7, 22, 50, &c. 1x2: the first pyramids by dividing the products 1 x 2 x 3; 2 × 3 × 4, &c. by the first 1 x 2 x 3. And in general, the figurate numbers of any order n are found by substituting successively 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. instead of in this general expression 2x+1x=+ 2 × ÷ + 3, &c. where 1 X 2 × 3 × 4, &c. the factors in the numerator and denominator are supposed to be multiplied together, and to be continued till the number in each be less by 1 than that which expresses the order of the figurates required. See Simpson's Algebra. FIGURE, in physics, expresses the sur FIG face, or terminating extremities of any FIGURES, in arithmetic, are certain FIGURE, in botany, a property of natural bodies, from which marks and distinctive characters are frequently drawn. Figure is more constant than number; more variable than proportion and situation. The figure of the flower in the same species is more constant than that of the fruit: hence Linnæus advises to arrange under the same genus such plants as agree invariably in the flowers, that is, in the calyx, petals, and stamina, although the fruit or seed-vessel should be very different. The seed-vessels of the dif ferent species of French honey-suckle, wild senna, acacia, Syrian mallow, and sophora, are exceedingly diversified in point of figure. Hence some former botanists, who paid more attention to the parts of the fruit, considered many of these species as distinct genera, and denominated them accordingly. The figure of the seed-vessel is a very common specific difference in the Sexual Method. FIGURE, in dancing, denotes the several steps which the dancer makes in or der and cadence, considered as they mark certain figures on the floor. FIGURE, in fortification, the plan of any fortified place, or the interior polygon, which, when the sides and angles are equal, is called a regular, and, when unequal, an irregular figure. FIGURE, in geometry, the superficies included between one or more lines is denominated either rectilinear, curvilinear, or mixed, according as the extremities are bounded by right lines, curve lines, or both. FIGURE, in grammar, a deviation from the natural rules of etymology, syntax, or prosody, either for brevity, elegance, or harmony. FIGURE, in logic, denotes a certain order and disposition of the middle term in any syllogism. FIGURE, in painting, and designing, denotes the lines and colours which form the representation of any animal, but more particularly of a human personage. Thus a painting is said to be full of fi gures, when there are abundance of re FIGURE, in rhetoric, is a manner of FILACER, or filizer, an officer of the Court of Common Pleas, so called, because he files those writs whereon he makes out process. FILAGO, in botany, a genus of the Syngenesia Polygamia Necessaria class and order. Natural order of Composite Nucamentacea. Corymbyferæ, Jussieu. Essential character: calyx imbricate: female, florets among the scales of the calyx; down none: receptacle naked. There are seven species. FILAMENT, in physiology and anatomy, denotes much the same as fibre. See FIBRE. FILAMENT, in botany, the lower, slender, or thread-shaped part of the stamina, that serves as a foot-stalk for elevating the anthers, and connecting them with the vegetable. The term is equivalent to the stamen of Tournefort, and other botanists. With Linnæus, stamen is a geral term, the two parts of which are the filament or thread, and the anthera or summit. From the number of the filaments the first thirteen classes in the "Sexual Method" arise. With respect to figure, filaments are either slender, like a hair, as in plantain; flat, as in star of Bethlehem; wedge-shaped, as in meadow-rue; twisted like a screw, as in hirtella; awl-shaped, as in tulip; notched, as in many of the lip-flowers; or bent backwards, as in superb lily. The filaments in spider-wort and flower-of-a-day are beautifully covered with a fine hairy down. As to proportion, the filaments are either very long, as in plantain; very short, as in arrow-headed grass; of equal lengths, as in most flowers; or irregular and unequal, as in the lip and cross-shaped flowers, which, from this circumstance constitute the classes Didynamia and Tetradynamia, in Linnæus's Method. The situation of the filaments is generally opposite to the divisions of the calyx, and⚫ alternate with the petals. FILAMENTS, Vegetable, form a substance of great use in the arts and manufac tures, furnishing thread, cloth, cordage, &c. For these purposes the filamentous Different vegetables have parts of hemp and flax are employed among us. been employed in different countries for the same uses. In some parts of Sweden a strong cloth is said to have been prepared from the stalks of hops. These have been tried here, but without success. Vegetable filaments, and the thread or cloth prepared from them, differ remarkably from wool, hair, silk, and other animal productions, particularly in their disposition to imbibe colouring matters; sundry liquors, which give a beautiful and durable dye to those of the animal, giving no stain at all to those of the vegetable kingdom. See DYEING. FILARIA, in natural history, a genus of the Vermes Intestina class and order. Body cylindrical, filiform, equal, and quite smooth; mouth terminal, more or less perceptible, simple, with a roundish concave lip. There are about 18 species, divided into four sections: viz. A. infest ing the mammalia; B. infesting birds; C. infesting insects in their perfect state; D. infesting the larvæ of insects. F. medinensis is found both in the East and West Indies, and is frequent in the morning dew, from which it enters the naked feet of the slaves, and creates the most trou. blesome itching, frequently accompanied with inflammation and fever. There is great difficulty in extracting it from its hold; the only method is, by cautiously drawing it out, by means of a piece of silk tied round its head; for if, by being too hasty, the animal should break, the part remaining under the skin grows with surprising vigour, and occasions an alarming, sometimes a fatal inflammation. It is frequently 12 feet long, and not larger than a horse-hair. FILBERT, the fruit of the corylus, or hazel. See CORYLUS. FILES, manufactory of. Many useful tools have been invented for performing mechanical operations, which consist of a number of wedges or teeth, which may be conceived to stand upon, or rise out of, a flat or curved metallic surface. When these teeth are formed upon the edge of a plate, the instrument is called a saw; but when they are formed upon a broad surface, it constitutes what is known by the name of a file. The comb-makers and others use a tool of this description, called a quonet, having coarse single teeth, to the number of about seven or eight in an inch. Fine tools of the same kind, namely, with single teeth, are called floats. When the teeth are crossed, they are called files; and when, instead of the notches standing in a right line, a num ber of single individual teeth are rais ed all over the surface, it is called a rasp. As the art of making files is nearly the same in its practice with regard to all the great variety of forms in which they are made, we shall confine our description to that of the flat file. Very little need be said in explanation of the method of forging these articles. They are usually made of steel, or more rarely of iron, case hardened. The forg ed files are brought to a flat surface on the grindstone, and are then ready for the file cutter. This artist is provided with a great number of chissels, consisting each of a piece of steel of moderate thickness, having a straight edge of greater length than the height of the chissel, the back of which terminates in a blunt angle or point in the middle of its length, upon which the blows are struck with a hammer of about five or six pounds weight, for middling sized files, having its head all on one side of the stem, so as to resemble the capital letter L, in order that it may by its own weight naturally dispose itself with the face downwards. The file is placed upon a plate of lead on a small low anvil, close to which the workman sits, and on the left side of the block of the anvil are fastened the two ends of a leather strap, which he brings over the file, and by putting his right foot into the loop holds it steadily in its place. In this situation, taking the chissel between his left finger and thumb, he applies its edge across the file, where the cuts are to begin at the point, and gives it a blow; the direction of the cut being inclined towards the tang, or that end of the file which is to go into the handle. Immediately after this commencing operation, he lifts the chisel, places its edge behind the other cut, and slides it forward till he feels it bear against the bur or protuberancy of the former cut, at which instant he gives the second blow; a third is repeated in like manner, and by a continuance of the same proceeding, the whole surface at length becomes covered with single strokes or notches, each of which presents an elevated sharp edge. The distance between stroke and stroke, or, which is the same thing, the coarseness of the file, depends entirely upon the violence of the blow, by which the bur is raised to a greater or less height; but it is not difficult with so weighty a hammer, after a very little practice, to give the strokes with great unifermity of impulse, and to repeat them with such frequency, as to perform this apparently delicate work with great speed and precision. The coarsest files have about ten or twelve cuts in the inch of length, and the very finest have upwards of two hundred. As soon as the whole surface of the file has been thus cut, the workman files the bur off with a smooth file, so as to leave very little more of the stroke than what has entered below the original surface; and then proceeds to give the second or cross-cut, forming an angle of about sixty degrees with the finest range of strokes. The intention to be answer. ed by filing off the first edges is, to afford a more even surface for cutting the second, which is done exactly in the same manner as the first range, and likewise to give a suitable figure to the small teeth or lozenge-shaped prominences, which stand up upon the face of the file after the cutting is completed. If this filing off were to be omitted, the teeth would be pointed and irregular; whereas the useful and durable figure is that of a small rounded chisel or gouge. It may be remarked, upon examining a file, that the first cut is always made more slantwise than the second. If this were not done, the small teeth would all lie behind one another, in rows in the direction of the length of the file, which would make corresponding grooves in the face of any piece of work that might be to be filed, instead of leaving the workman at liberty to vary his strokes, as is necessary when a flat surface is to be produced. When the file is cut and finished on both sides, and on one or both edges, as may be required, it is ready for hardening, which is a chemical operation of some skill and ingenuity. The heat is given in a furnace, where the work can be regularly disposed, and for fine work a muffle is used. The file is first exposed to a low degree of ignition, which burns off any greasy or other matter that might adhere to its surface. It is then dipped, cold, in the grounds or thick sediment of beer, and while wet, into a powder made of burned or parched horn, or leather, or other coally animal matter, and of common salt, and in this state speedily dried by exposure to heat. Any other mucilage, which could be afforded at a moderate price, would probably answer the same purpose as the beer grounds. The file being then put into the ignited muffle, smokes, and soon becomes red hot, being not only defended from oxydation, by the covering of fused salt and animal coal which envelopes it on all sides, but be, ing even rendered more steely upon its surface by the absorption of carbon. As soon as it has acquired the low red heat called cherry-red, it is taken out and plunged into pure cold water, which instantly cools it, and renders it very hard. There are several variations adopted in the hardening process by different workmen, by means of which they differ in their success. Some file-makers, as well as gunsmiths and locksmiths, produce the intended effect so completely, that the whole surface of their work has a beautiful dull-grey aspect, every where alike; whereas other operators produce coally spots, which are obliged to be cleaned off. The files, when quite dry and clean, are slightly oiled, and kept in oiled paper. The simple operation of file-cutting seems to be of such easy performance, that it is not at all to be wondered at, that machines for this purpose should have been very early invented. Mathurin Jousse, in "La Fidelle Overture de l'Art de Serrurier," published at La Fleche, in Anjou, in 1627, gives a drawing and description of one, in which the file is drawn along by shifts by wheel-work, and the blow is given by a hammer, which is tripped by the machinery. There are several in the Machines Approuvées par l'Academie Royale de Paris;" and one in the "American Transactions;" and a patent was granted a few years ago, for improvements in the art, to the editor of this work. The principal requisites in a machine for file-cutting are, that the file should be steadily supported, and the chisel adapted to the face, without any unequal bearing. Files are, however, for the most part, cut by hand; and the chief reasons are, 1. The cut by hand is, from its very nature, exactly of the depth the bur demands; whereas, in a machine, if the stroke be not nicely adapted to the shift, the file may be either shallow cut, or its bur may be thrown too close by an over heavy stroke; and 2. In machine cut files, there must always be a piece left at the beginning, at each corner, which requires to be cut off before hardening. This may be remedied in the machinery, but it has not yet been done. FILICES, ferns, one of the seven families or natural tribes into which the whole vegetable kingdom is divided by Lin. næus, in his "Philosophia Botanica." They are defined to be plants which bear their flower and fruit on the back of the leaf or stalk, which, in this class of im |