But that is abolished,* in greatest part, by the Christian law. That which cometh nearest to it is to leave those arts chiefly to strangers, which, for that purpose, are the more easily to be received, and to contain the principal bulk of the vulgar natives within those three kinds; tillers of the ground, free servants, and handicraftsmen of strong and manly arts, as smiths, masons, carpenters, etc., not reckoning professed soldiers.

But, above all, for empire and greatness, it importeth most, that a nation do profess arms as their principal honor, study, and occupation. For the things which we formerly have spoken of, are but habilitations towards arms; and what is habilitation without intention and act? Romulus, after his death, as they report or feign, sent a present to the Romans, that above all they should intend arms, and then they should prove the greatest empire of the world. The fabric of the state of Sparta was wholly, though not wisely, framed and composed to that scope and end. The Persians and Macedonians had it for a flash. The Gauls, Germans, Goths, Saxons, Normans, and others, had it for a time. The Turks have it at this day, though in great declination. Of Christian Europe, they that have it are, in effect, only the Spaniards. But it is so plain, that every man profiteth in that he most intendeth, that it needeth not to be stood upon. It is enough to point at it, that no nation, which doth not directly profess arms, may look to have greatness fall into their mouths. And, on the other side, it is a most certain oracle of time, that those states that continue long in that profession, as the Romans and Turks principally have done, do wonders; and those that have professed arms but for an age have, notwithstanding, commonly attaineò that greatness in that age which maintained them long after, when their profession and exercise of arms hath grown to decay.

Incident to this point is for a state to have those laws or customs which may reach forth unto them just occasions, as may be pretended, of war; for there is that justice imprinted in the nature of men, that they enter not upon wars, whereof so many calamities do ensue, but upon some, at the least,

*That is abolished. What ?-Which (who) for that purpose. What purpose? -Contain (Lat. con-, together; tenere, to hold). keep.--Vulgar (Lat. vulgus, common people), ordinary, common.-Importeth. Modernize. Habilitations (Lat. habilis, fit; fr. habere, to hold), qualifications.-Intention (Lat. intendere, to stretch on), a stretching of the mind, earnest attention.-Present, a mandate, command. The word is rarely found in this sense.-Intend arms, bend their energies to war. Military supremacy was the darling object of ambition to the Romans. See Eneid, vI., 848-855. For a flash, momentarily.--Profiteth, succeeds.--Intendeth, strives after.-Stood upon. Modernize. --Profess arms. Equivalent to what? Fall into their mouths. Equivalent ?-Oracle (Lat. orare, to speak; fr. os, oris, the mouth), divine utterance; wise and weighty decision. What and where were the most famous oracles of antiquity ?--Grown to decay, fallen into decay. Does the present condition of France, Turkey, or Spain, tend to confirm Bacon's argument? Does he not ignore the power of public opinion and the influence of Christianity?-Incident to, appertaining to.-As may be pretended. This doctrine is worthy of Machiavel or of Themistocles, not of Bacon. It would appear from this passage, and from much of his conduct, that he really believed the end to justify the means.

Habilitations towards arms = qualifications for a military life. Other equivalents? In all these cases where equivalent expressions are called for, the instructor will do well to insist on a judicious selection of the best. "Know all men by these presents,

Sent a present sent a command. Other equivalents?

is the law phraseology, the substance of which, in almost the same terms, is given by Shakespeare. The Latin is literas presentes, i. e., present letters.

Intend arms = pay attention to arms. Other grammatical equivalents?

As may be pretended as may be put forward as may be assigned for pretexts = Other equivalents?

specious, grounds and quarrels.* The Turk hath at hand, for cause of war, the propagation of his law or sect, a quarrel that he may always command. The Romans-though they esteemed the extending the limits of their empire to be great honor to their generals when it was done, yet they never rested upon that alone to begin a war, First, therefore, let nations that pretend to greatness have this, that they be sensible of wrongs, either upon borderers, merchants, or politic ministers; and that they sit not too long upon a provocation. Secondly, let them be prest and ready to give aids and succors to their confederates, as it ever was with the Romans: insomuch as if the confederates had leagues defensive with divers other states, and, upon invasion offered, did implore their aids severally, yet the Romans would ever be the foremost, and leave it to none other to have the honor. As for the wars, which were anciently made on the behalf of a kind of party, or tacit conformity of state, I do not see how they may be well justified: as, when the Romans made a war for the liberty of Græcia; or, when the Lacedæmonians and Athenians made war to set up or pull down democracies or oligarchies; or, when wars were made by foreigners, under the pretence of justice or protection, to deliver the subjects of others from tyranny and oppression, and the like. Let it suffice, that no estate expect to be great, that is not awake upon any just occasion of arming.

No body can be healthful without exercise, neither natural body nor politic; and, certainly, to a kingdom, or estate, a just and honorable war is the true exercise. A civil war, indeed, is like the heat of a fever; but a foreign war is like the heat of exercise, and serveth to keep the body in health. For, in slothful peace, both courages will effeminate, and manners corrupt. But howsoever it be for happiness, without all question for greatness it maketh to be still for the most part in arms; and the strength of a veteran army (though it be a chargeable business), always on foot, is that which commonly giveth the law; or, at least, the reputation amongst all neighbor states, as may be well seen in Spain; which hath had, in one part or other, a veteran army almost continually, now by the space of six score years.

ness!

* Quarrels, causes of dispute, grounds of hostility. See the word quarrel in Bacon's Essaon Marriage and Single Life, p. 95. How far below Milton's is Bacon's conception of true great "A state ought to be but as one huge Christian personage, one mighty growth and stature of an honest man, as big and compact in virtue as in body!" But Bacon's notions of morality and duty in some other respects never rose to the Christian standard.-His law, the doctrine of the Koran.--Quarrel, cause of war. See the Index.-The extending (of) the limits. "The" must be used before, and "of" after the participial noun, or both must be omitted. --Have this. This what ?--Politic, political. Politic ministers are ambassadors, diplomatists, ministers of state.-Sit not too long. Meaning? Prest (Fr. prêt; Lat. præstus, ready), prompt.-As if the confederates, that if the confederates.-On the behalf, etc., in favor of a political party, or for the sake of securing a tacit (i. e., not openly avowed) correspondence in the form of the government.-Græcia (A. S. Grec; Lat. Grævia), Greece. So in Daniel viii. 21.-Others, other governments.-Effeminate, grow womanish or weak.—Corrupt, become impure.-It maketh, it profits, mak ́s for a nation's advantage. See make, Index.-Still (A. S. stille, quietly), continually.-Chargeable (Lat. carrus, a cart; W. cart; A. S. craet; Fr. charger, to load; whence cargo,) costly.-Reputation (of being law-giver?)

A quarrel that he may always command. Equivalents?

Let them be prest let them be prompt.
let them be prompt. Other equivalents?

Both courages will effeminate, and manners corrupt = what?

By the space of what? See in Acts xx. 31, "By the space of three years I ceased," etc.

To be master of the sea is an abridgment of a monarchy. Cicero, writing to Atticus of Pompey's preparation against Cæsar, saith, "Consilium Pompeii plane Themistocleum est; putat enim, qui mari potitur, eum rerum potiri;" and, without doubt, Pompey had tired out Cæsar, if upon vain confidence he had not left that way. We see the great effects of battles by sea: the battle of Actium decided the empire of the world; the battle of Lepanto arrested the greatness of the Turk. There be many examples, where sea fights have been final to the war; but this is when princes, or states, have set up their rest upon the battles. But thus much is certain, that he that commands the sea is at great liberty, and may take as much and as little of the war as he will; whereas, those that be strongest by land are many times, nevertheless, in great straits. Surely, at this day, with us of Europe, the vantage of strength at sea, which is one of the principal dowries of this kingdom of Great Britain, is great; both because most of the kingdoms of Europe are not merely inland, but girt with the sea most part of their compass; and because the wealth of both Indies seems, in great part, but an accessory to the command of the seas.

The wars of later ages seem to be made in the dark, in respect of the glory and honor which reflected upon men from the wars in ancient time. There be now, for martial encouragement, some degress and orders of chivalry, which, nevertheless, are conferred promiscuously upon soldiers and no soldiers, and some remembrance perhaps upon the escutcheon, and some hospitals for maimed soldiers, and such like things. But, in ancient times, the trophies erected upon the place of the victory; the funeral laudatives and monuments for those that died in the wars; the crowns and garlands personal; the style of emperor, which the great kings of the world after borrowed; the triumphs of the generals upon their return; the great donatives and largesses upon the disbanding of the armies,-were things able to inflame all men's courages. But, above all, that of the triumph amongst the Romans was not pageants, or gaudery, but one of the wisest and noblest institutions that ever was. For it contained three things; honor to the general,

* Abridgment (Fr. abréger, to abbreviate; Lat. brevis), compact form. Cicero (B. C. 107-43), the most celebrated of the Roman orators. Atticus, friend and correspondent of Cicero. He committed suicide by starvation, B. C. 33.-Pompey's (B. C. 106-48). In some editions Pompey's is printed Pompey his. The old mode of indicating the possessive by adding his, appears to have originated in a blunder. The apostrophe with's comes from the old genitive (pos.) termination_es (is or ys). The e being dropped the apostrophe takes its place, and the s is retained.-Consilium, etc. The plan of Pompey is clearly that of Themistocles; for he thinks that whoever is master of the sea is master of the world.'-Actium, a small promontory at the entrance of the Ambracian (modern Arta) gulf, famous for the decisive naval battle between Augustus and Mark Antony, B. C. 31.Lepanto, a seaport town of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Lepanto. In this gulf the Turkish fleet was annihilated, A. D. 1571, by the combined fleets of the Christian states of the Mediterranean under Don John of Austria.-That be strongest. Note the frequent use of be for are, by the old writers.-Final to the war. Modernize.-Set up their rest. Meaning?-Vantage, advantage.-Merely (A. S. mare, pure, unmixed; Lat. merus), completely.— Compass, circuit. See Index.-Degrees, titles of distinction.-Escutcheon (Lat. scutum, a leather shield; Fr. écu), coat of arms.-Laudatives, panegyrics.-Style, designation, title.Triumphs, magnificent parades. See Index. Describe a Roman triumph.'-Donatives, gifts.-Pageants (A. S. pacean, to deceive by false appearances), pompous display.-Gaudery (Lat. gaudium, joy), ostentatious finery, gauds.

Are not merely inland are not completely inland. Other equivalents?
Funeral laudatives funeral eulogies

= panegyrics. Other equivalents?

riches to the treasury out of the spoils, and donatives to the army. But that honor, perhaps, were not fit for monarchies, except it be* in the person of the monarch himself, or his sons; as it came to pass in the times of the Roman emperors, who did impropriate the actual triumphs to themselves and their sons, for such wars as they did achieve in person, and left only, for wars achieved by subjects, some triumphal garments and ensigns to the general.

To conclude: no man can, by care-taking, as the Scripture saith, “add a cubit to his stature," in this little model of a man's body. But in the great frame of kingdoms and commonwealths, it is in the power of princes, or estates, to add amplitude and greatness to their kingdoms. For, by introducing such ordinances, constitutions, and customs, as we have now touched, they may sow greatness to their posterity and succession. But these things are commonly not observed, but left to take their chance.

* Except it be. Equivalent?-Impropriate, appropriate, assume as one's own.-Caretaking. "Which of you with taking thought, can add to his stature one cubit?" Matt. vi., 27; Luke xii., 25.-Touched (upon), treated of briefly.

Who did impropriate = who appropriated. Other equivalents?

As we have now touched = as we have now slightly treated of. Other equivalents?

As with the preceding essays, the student will do well to write out the leading thoughts, and recast them in the form of one or more essays. Write an argument to confirm or refute any of the doctrines here advanced by Bacon. Make citations from modern history to illustrate or overthrow them. Compare the concentration of thought and language in Bacon with the diffusiveness of Spenser. Set forth in writing your views of true national greatness. Write an essay on Bacon's moral character, as far as it may be inferred from these essays that we have read. Write another on his intellectual power as evinced therein. Write separate sketches of his life at different periods, as in youth, in early manhood, in middle age, while chancellor, and after retirement from active business. Has Macaulay treated him fairly? What can you say of the Baconian philosophy?

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE.

1564-1616.

NOTWITHSTANDING the investigations of scores of scholars and antiquarians, little is known of the early life of Shakespeare. No history records the successive steps by which he rose from the lowest depths of poverty and obscurity to the loftiest summits of intellect and fame.

His parents were illiterate, rarely, if ever, writing a word, but content to make their mark when called on for their signatures to any paper. His mother's name was Arden, a surname adopted by the Turchills, a family of some note that traced their lineage beyond the Norman conquest. Shakespeare is an old Warwickshire word. Lowell thinks that one lobe of William's brain was Normanly refined, and the other Saxonly sagacious; " but other scholars will have it that he was purely Saxon. If we may confide in the accuracy of the painter of his bust, which had been colored to the life before Edmund Malone stultified himself by whitening it in imitation of marble, his eyes were of a light hazel color, his complexion fair, and his hair and beard auburn.

His mother had inherited some property. His father was a man of business; at various times, or perhaps all at once, farmer, wool-comber, butcher, and glover. In the little world of Stratford, he held successively the offices of "ale-taster," bailiff, justice of the peace, and chief alderman. At the age of thirteen, William found himself the oldest of thirteen living children, two sisters, born before him, having died in infancy.

In the Stratford free grammar-school, open to William at the age of seven, he probably acquired some knowledge of Latin and Greek, in addition to the common English branches. His extraordinary vocabulary, far surpassing in fullness and accuracy that of any other writer in any age, proves him to have been a most diligent student of language; while his learning in metaphysics, literature, logic, art, law, medicine, navigation, history, politics, mythology, shows him unequalled in keenness of observation, and in power of acquiring, classifying, and assimilating.

Doubtless the first twelve years of his life passed happily enough amid the comfort and respectability of home. But clouds now gathered. The little property which William's mother had brought her husband, was slowly dissipated. Unable to support his growing family, the father sank deeper and deeper in poverty. Though nominally an alderman, he for seven years dared not attend the meetings of the board, for fear of being arrested for debt. Skulking and hiding from constables, he was at length seized in 1587 and lodged in debtor's jail.

The distress of this once proud and respectable family must have been terrible. Mother and younger children naturally looked to the oldest boy, bright, strong, brave William, just entering manhood. Who knows but that the agonies of those nearest and dearest to him wrought in his sensitive spirit a determination to conquer all obstacles, and lift the family out of suffering and disgrace? The prodigious intellectual energies that he afterwards exhibited, must have had some great impelling force behind them, holding him to his work as with a giant's strength. Here may have been the source of his inspiration.