Spain, England and France, but above all the union of the country with France and the consequent loss of the colonies, brought all the branches of this flourishing commerce to the verge of ruin. Since the establishment of the independence of the kingdom, most of its former colonies have been restored, and commerce has begun to revive, but it will take a long time to restore it to its former prosperity.

Islands.] There are many large islands formed by the mouths of the Maese and the Scheldt, the principal of which are Walcheren, South Beveland, North Beveland, Tholen, Schouwen, Overflakkee, Voorn, Beierland, and Ysselmonde. Texel, at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, is a large island, on the east side of which is the famous road where the Dutch East India ships assemble. The other considerable islands on the northern coast are Vlieland, Schelling, and Ameland.

FRANCE.

Situation and Extent.] France is bounded N.W. by the English channel; N.E. by the kingdom of the Netherlands; E. by Germany, Switzerland, and Italy; S. E. by the Mediterranean; S.W. by Spain, and W. by the bay of Biscay. It is remarkably fortunate in its frontier, having strong natural barriers in the Pyrenees on the side of Spain, in the Alps on the side of Italy, in the ridge of Jura on the side of Switzerland, and in the Vosges mountains and the river Rhine on the side of Germany; it is open only on the side of the Netherlands. It lies between lat. 42° 23′ and 51° 3' N. and between lon. 4° 40′ W. and 9° 3' E. It is 65Q miles long from E. to W. and 560 broad from N. to S. The area is computed at 200,000 square miles.

Divisions.] Before the revolution France was divided into 32 provinces. At present it is divided into 86 departments. The departments are subdivided into 368 arrondissements, the arrondissements into 2,669 cantons, and the cantons into 38,990 communes.

Mountains.] The Pyrenees, which separate France from Spain, run in a direction a little south of east from the bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean. They contain many lofty summits, the highest of which is Mont Perdu, which is 10,578 feet above the level of the sea. The mountains of Lozere, which are loosely connected with the eastern part of the chain of the Pyrenees, proceed in a N. E. direction to the sources of the Loire, where they divide into two branches; the northwestern branch, called the Mountains of Auvergne, proceeds towards the centre of France, and contains the summits of Mont d' Or, (6,288 feet,) the Cantal, (5,964 feet,) and the Puy de Dome, (4,960 feet high;) the northeastern, called the Sevennes, less lofty than the other, passes between the Loire and the Rhone, and proceeds as far north as the department of Cote d'Or.

On the east side of the Rhone there are several chains, more or less connected with each other. The Alps, called here the Maritime Alps, separate France from Italy. The Mount Jure

thain, which may be regarded as a branch of the Alps, com mences near Geneva at the S.W. extremity of Switzerland, and after forming the boundary between Switzerland and France, continues its course in a northerly direction under the name of the Vosges as far as the parallel of 50° N. lat. The most elevated peaks in the Jura chain are the Reculet, (5,200 feet,) and the Dole (5,178 feet above the level of the sea.)

Rivers.] The four principal rivers in France are the Garonne, the Loire, the Seine and the Rhone. 1. The Garonne rises in the department of the Upper Pyrenees, and flowing on the whole in a N.W. direction, passes by Toulouse, Agen, and Bourdeaux, and discharges itself into the Atlantic ocean through two mouths after a course of more than 400 miles. It is three miles wide at its mouth, and frigates ascend as far as Bourdeaux. Its principal tributaries are the Arriege, the Tarn, the Lot and the Dordogne. After the junction of the Dordogne the river is called Gironde. 2. The Loire, the largest river in France, rises in the department of the Upper Loire, between the mountains of Sevennes and Auvergne, and flows at first in a northerly direction to the centre of the kingdom, where it turns to the west, and passing by Orleans, Blois, Tours, Angers and Nantes, falls into the Atlantic after a course of 500 miles. It is navigable to Nantes for vessels of 70 or 80 tons, and for boats almost to its source. Its principal tributaries are the Allier, the Cher, the Indre, the Vienne, the Sevre-of-Nantes, and the Mayenne. 3. The Seine rises in the department of Cote d' Or, and flowing in a northwest direction, passes by Troyes, Paris,and Rouen, and discharges itself into the English channel, after a course of 400 miles. It admits vessels of considerable burden as far as Rouen, and boats to Troyes. Its principal tributaries are the Aube, the Yonne, the Marne, the Oise and the Eure. 4. The Rhone issues from the lake of Geneva in Switzerland, and pursues a S.W. course to Lyons, where it turns to the south, and passing by Vienne, Valence and Avignon, discharges itself through three mouths into the Mediterranean. It is the most rapid river in Europe, and the upward navigation can be performed only by draught or steam. Its principal tributaries are the Saone, a large river from the north which joins it at Lyons, and the Isere and Durance from the east, which bring the tributary waters of the western face of the Alps.

The smaller rivers which discharge themselves directly into the sea are, the Somme and the Orne, which fall into the English channel; the Vilaine, the Sevre-of-Niort, the Charente and the Adour, which fall into the bay of Biscay; and the Herault and Var, which fall into the Mediterranean.

The principal rivers, whose course lies only partly in France. are, 1. The Escaut or Scheldt, which rises in the department of Aisne, and flows immediately into the Netherlands. 2. The Maese, or Meuse, which rises in Upper-Marne, and passes by Neufchateau, Verdun, and Mezieres into the Netherlands. 3. The Moselle, which rises in the mountains of the Vosges, and running north across the S. E. corner of the Netherlands into Germany,

passes by Remiremont, Epinal, Metz, and Treves, and joins the Rhine at Coblentz. Its principal tributaries are the Meurthe and the Sarre. 4. The Rhine for a short distance forms the boundary between France and Germany.

Canals. The following are the principal canals. celebrated canal of Languedoc, commenced and completed in the reign of Louis XIV. at an expense of £500,000, opens a comunication between the bay of Biscay and the Mediterrapean through the southern part of the kingdom. It begins on the Garonne at Toulouse and proceeds in a direction a little S. of E. to a small lake or bay communicating with the Mediterranean at Cette. It is 140 miles long, 60 feet broad, 6 feet deep, and is carried over the intervening rivers by 58 aqueducts. In one place it passes through a hill by a tunnel 500 feet long and 20 feet broad. 2. The canal of the centre, which connects the Saone with the Loire, and thus opens a communication between the Mediterranean and the bay of Biscay through the centre of the kingdom. 3. The canals of Orleans and Briare which connect the Loire with the Seine. 4. The canal of St. Quentin, which connects the Somme with the Oise.

Face of the Country.] The southeastern part of the kingdom and narrow tracts along the eastern and southern borders are mountainous. The rest of the country may be called uneven and in some places hilly, the surface being everywhere sufficiently varied to render the prospects interesting. Correze and the neighboring departments surpass every part of France in beauty. Hills, dales, woods, streams, lakes and scattered farms are mingled into a thousand delightful landscapes. The banks of the Seine, for 200 miles from its mouth, and of the Loire as high as Angers, are also eminently beautiful. The country east of the Rhone presents many pleasing prospects, and the course of the Isere is a scene of perpetual beauty. The Pyrenees are the most striking of the mountains, and their verdure, their forests, rocks and torrents have all the character of the sublime and beautiful.

Climate.] The eastern part of France is warmer than the western in the same parallels. Mr. Young divides the country into four climates. A line commencing a little north of the mouth of the Loire, and passing in an E.N.E. direction to the Netherlands through the department of the Aisne would leave a tract to the N.W. called the northern climate, in which the vine will not grow. It is considerably warmer than in England but equally moist; and produces a great variety of fine fruits. The vine climate is a space included between the northern climate and a line passing nearly parallel with the other, from the mouth of the Garonne to the Rhine through the department of the Meurthe. This is the pleasantest climate; the air is light, pure and elastic; and the sky is generally clear; the summer is not fervid, and the winters are mild. The Maize Climate is broader, Its southern boundary is a line beginning on the Pyrenees in the department of the Arriege and passing through Grenoble on the