193 and 199. Letter Writing and Composition. There is really no royal road to letter writing, and I know of no good set of model letters. Almost all the guides to letter writing I have seen contain a great deal of stiff, formal, soulless, and pretentious essayism. In letters, the style should be off-hand, kindly, free from inversions and set terms of expression. The subjects ought to be more hinted at than described, and put more as suggestions than as opinions. The greatest variety of phrase is allowable, but there must be no stilted sesquipedalian expressions; neither must dogmatic forms of speech appear in them. Respectful deference, and a thoroughly reliant dependence upon the feeling of the person corresponded with, ought to be manifested. Of course, all this refers to intercourse by letter between friends or in friendly relations. Business letters must be formal, pointed, severely correct in structure, and capable of one interpretation only. I would advise a course of attentive readings of biographies in which letters form a portion of the narrative, and especially of the Letters of Seward, Walpole, Montague, Pope, Smith, Jeffrey, Wilberforce, Byron, &c., but on no account advise an imitation of them. Let the heart speak the thoughts of the mind, and a good letter will be the result.-R. M. A.

193. Composition.—We offer these few hints on the study of composition to G. P. M, hoping also that they may prove useful to others of the earnest self-educators who form so large a portion of the subscribers of the British Controversialist. We would premise that the art of composition is one requiring great attention and continuous effort, in order to make any great progress in it. The first endeavour of the student should be to acquire readiness in the use of language. To effect this, the following methods may be used with advantage. If the student has a pretty accurate knowledge of any other language than his own, let him Occupy his leisure in translating freely 1862.

passages from the best authors in that language. Another method is, to read over carefully two or three times, a passage from some standard author; and having closed the book, to write out the substance of what has been read. Having done this, compare your reproduction with the original, noting any differences in the formation of sentences, the position of epithets, &c. Again, it will be found a very improving exercise to paraphrase some poem, taking care to get at the true meaning of your author; and then to express it in clear, idiomatic English. For this purpose, we can strongly recommend that delightful poem, Goldsmith's "Deserted Village." There is an edition published at 1s. 6d. by Longman and Co., to which are appended short notes, which will be found very useful. By steadily using the methods we have roughly sketched, great facility in the use of language can be obtained in a comparatively short time. We must now speak of original composition. Do not be in too great haste; compose slowly at first, very slowly, as the surest way to attain excellence is to follow up the spirit of the Latin motto, festina lente. That "leviathan in literature," Dr. Johnson, may be cited as an example. It was his practice, in the early part of his literary career, to compose with the greatest deliberation. As an instance of the rapidity to which he afterwards attained, we may mention that one or two of his most admired papers in the Rambler were written in twenty minutes each. Subject your early efforts in original composition to oft-repeated revisions, and this when the ardour of composition has passed away. Remember, also, that your style will be greatly influenced by your reading. Be sure, then, that the books you read most carefully are such as are remarkable for terseness, perspicuity, and elegance. A plan we have ourselves followed with advantage is, to have two or three

*See an example given in p. 77 ante.

L

favourite authors, whose style we greatly admire, and to read daily some part of one or more of them, as our leisure permits. In this way it is that the student's style is gradually formed. A careful perusal of Irving's " Elements of English Composition" will prove of great service, in enabling the student to obtain a critical knowledge of the English tongue. If we wish to exercise an influence on thinking minds, let us ourselves endeavour to think deeply and logically, and to exercise true taste when expressing our thoughts for the benefit of others.-T. L. P.

If G. P. M. would become thoroughly up in all that relates to English composition, let him begin with Neil's Composition and Elocution;" go over the articles on "Essentials of Composition," in Brit. Contro., vol. v., and finish with "Elements of Rhetoric."-G. G. D.

195. Novum Organum.—Having had the privilege of asking a question in your columns, I have much pleasure in showing that I am willing to give as well as take. "Logicus" will find the quotation he mentions in Macaulay's Miscellaneous Works," vol. i., p. 347. -MOSES PRIMROSE.

205. Early English History.—"“ A Youthful Student" ought to have been more specific in his query. What does he understand by "early English history"? Is it the PreRomanic, the Romanic, the Saxon, the Normanic, or the Inter-Normanic and Pre-Reformational? Or does it include any or all of these? Or does it refer to all that precedes the Revolution of 1688, from which modern English history re-dates? If some limit of time or circumstance had been given in his query, our work would have been easier and more pointed. Such indefimite questionings lead to vague and indefinite answers, which cannot be productive of real profit. We shall prefer, in reference to this matter, to err on the safe side, and suppose that all the period which preceded the Rformation is implied in the word "early." Here, however, just as we are about to begin our reply, another difficulty rises

up in thought. Does " A Youthful Student" want to study "early English history" in its sources? or does he only wish to arrive at the results of the study of these sources by others? In regard to this matter, too, we shall prefer to err on the wide margin side, and to point out and commend a few good works, possessed of each or both of these characteristics. It is impossible, however, in the space at our disposal here. to discriminate nicely, and characterize fully, each author named, or to compare and sift thoroughly the claims of each to credence or regard. We shall quote them, as affording "authorities" upon the subject, though they may not each be authoritative on each point; and we shall endeavour to place them in such an order as shall be suitable as a directory for the reading of those who wish to become somewhat more than averagely acquainted with "early English history;" so that our reply may not only be useful to "A Young Student," but to many young students, for we know there are many among your readers. 1. Pre Romanic.-Hints of Pre-Romanic Britain are to be found in Herodotus, Aristotle, Dion, and Polybins, among Greek writers; and in some passages of Cæsar, Tacitus, Suetonius, Strabo, Quinctillian, Pliny, &c.; and these may be found, for the most part, articulately set forth in a work entitled The History of the Ancient Britons, from the Earliest Period to the Invasion of the Saxons, compiled from the original authorities," by Dr. Giles (London, Geo. Bell, 1847) 2. Romanic. -The work above quoted will supply the text of the ancient writers upon this era and further information on this period will be found in the Rev. Francis Thackeray's "Researches into the Ecclesiastical and Political State of Ancient Britain under the Roman

Emperors" (Cadell, 1843); Cicero's

Letters;" the works of Diodorus and Tacitus, the historians; Strabo, the geographer; several of the Roman poets, &c.; and the writings of Clement (of Rome), Tertullian, Origen,

Several

chapters of Gibbon (see Index, under "Britain, England, &c.," Bohn's edition) contain well-composed information. The early pages of Hume, Mackintosh, Milner, &c., some passages in Hallam, and the first fifty pages of J. A. St. John's "Four Conquests of England," vol. i., suggest themselves also as being worthy of perusal and study. Horsley's "Britannia Romana;" the early part of Hollingshed's "Chronicles;" of John Speed's "History" and of James Tyrrell's "History" (1697-1704), will add to the information contained in the above works. 3. Saxon. When we reach this point, materials are abun. dant-superabundant for an ordinary student. Besides Palgrave's "Rise and Progress of the English Commonwealth," and "History of the AngloSaxons," Lappenburg's History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings;" Sharon Turner's" History of the AngloSaxons:" Thorpe's "Anglo-Saxon Laws and Institutes of England:" J. M. Kemble's " Anglo-Saxons [see also an article in Fraser's Magazine, July, 1835, by Thomas Wright, whose Biographia Britannica Literaria Anglo-Saxon Period," and "The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon," merit perusal], we have all the old chroniclers and historians, e. g., " Bede," and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle;" Six Old English Chronicles;" William of Malmesbury's "Chronicle;" Roger of Wendover's "Flowers of History;" Roger de Hoveden's "Annals;" Matthew Paris's "Chronicle," Henry of Huntingdon's "History;" Florence of Worcester's "Chronicle;" Matthew of Westminster's "Flowers of History,"

&c., &c.; to which add Pauli's "Life of Alfred the Great," all to be had in Bohn's "Antiquarian Library," at 5s. per volume. 4. Normanic.-This period is illustrated by many of the works mentioned in the preceding paragraph, and may be more fully studied in Sharon Turner's "History of England during the Middle Ages;" Hallam's "Middle Ages;" Lingard's "History of England," and Palgrave's "History of Normandy and England." 5. InterNormanic and Pre-Reformational.Shakspere's chronicle plays; Fordsham's "Life of King John;" Cotton's "Henry III.;" Baston's "Edward I." (in Latin verse); Rishanger's "Edward I.;" Henningford's "Three Edwards;" Saville's "Reigns of Edwards II., I, III., and Richard II.;" Froissart's "Chronicle;" John Whethamstede's "Ancient Writers of the Affairs of England;" Caxton's "Chronicles;" Sir Harris Nicholas's "Battle of Agincourt;" Spelman and Lemon's "Civil Wars between York and Lancaster;" Buck's "Richard III.;" Bacon's Henry VII, VIII., and Mary." The works of Tyrrell and Carte formed the basis of Hume's "History," a work which every student should read. The other histories which ought to be read are Turner's, Fox's, Mackintosh's, Lingard's (from a Roman Catholic point of view), Hallam's, John Milton's, Froude's, especially for the Pre-Reformation period (Macaulay does not fall within the scope of the question); the "Pictorial History of England," edited by Knight, and written by Craik, Mac Farlane, &c. It is needful to read multa et multum to be a historic student; but let all reading be thoughtful.-S. N.

206. J. D.'s inquiry, as to deriving the geocentric from the heliocentric position of a planet, cannot be answered in a few words. It is a process of intricate calculation, which few persons think of mastering, except the calculators of the Nautical Almanack.-M.

Under the word "Parallax," in the "Penny Cyclopædia," J. D. will find perhaps the clearest and most concise instructions upon the point.-G. J.

PART I.

ONE great feature (and that a hopeful one) of the present day is the prevalence of self-culture. Everywhere we see institutions established for the encouragement and assistance of the noble bands of self-instructors which exist in Britain. education, though not of itself able to eradicate crime, forms at least a powerful auxiliary to the higher and nobler principle of religion; and if the "rising generation " be fitly trained in the humanizing and elevating precepts of the Gospel of Christ, and in the knowledge of the laws which regulate mind and body, we may surely be justified in anticipating a brighter, because a more intellectual and religious future.

And if, as we think,

Literature is a powerful instrument for good or evil. It may be used for the degradation of man's moral nature, and is, to far too great an extent, employed in pandering to diseased minds craving after unnatural mental excitement; it may be used to disseminate the most depraved principles, and the most outrageous calumnies both in morals and politics, not to mention religion. But, on the other hand, it is also a potential means for good. No people can enjoy any greater blessing than a free and healthy literature. This is plain from many circumstances -too obvious, indeed, to need recapitulation here. Literature has produced refinement and intelligence out of bar. barism; it has transformed the rugged elements of the unintelligent ambition of the savage mind into moral and spiritual beauty; and caused the mind to soar aloft as on eagle's wings in the search after knowledge.

Literary institutions are powerful agents in this good cause; they ex

6.

tend the possibility of intellectual culture, incite to emulative contests for mental superiority, urge upon the ignorant the pleasures and advantages of knowledge-knowledge which can seduce a man from the haunts of dissipation, save him from moral and intellectual shipwreck, snatch him from ruin and wretchedness, rescue him from brotherhood with beggary and

con

tempt, and make him more than a muscular, sinewed, nerve-gifted, lifemoved piece of mechanism; make him a talented, expert, exact, and scientific artisan. Knowledge, which can fit him for any emergency in which he may be called to act, by teaching him the natural principles, according to which the world is constituted; acquainting him with the rationale of daily labour -routine, and filling his mind with thoughts more brilliant than enchanter's wand could ever bring before a mortal eye. Knowledge, which is the glory of man; the power employed in the attainment of which is the highest element in his nature, and the most wondrous agency under God which manifests itself throughout the universe.*

Foremost among the Literary Institutions of Glasgow must be placed her venerable University, now closing the 411th year of its existence. It was founded in 1450, by authority of a bull of Pope Nicholas V., a pontiff of rare erudition and extensive knowledge; and he bestowed on the new seat of learning all the privileges which belonged to the University of Bologna. Some of the most eminent of Britain's sons have been proud to bear the title of Lord Rector of Glasgow University. Among these we may instance, Colonel

*See Neil's 66 chap. ii.

'Young Debater,"

Mure, Lord Macaulay, Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, and the present Rector, Lord Elgin. The Chancellor of the University is the Duke of Montrose; Vice-Chancellor and Principal, Thomas Barclay, D.D.; Rector, the Earl of Elgin; and Dean, James Moncrieff, Esq., M.P. Attached to the University is an extensive library; also, a magnificent anatomical museum, which, with a valuable library of rare and curious books, and a considerable number of paintings and coins, were bequeathed by Dr. William Hunter, with a sum of £8,000 to support and augment the collection. This fine museum (known as the Hunterian) was transferred to Glasgow in 1807, where a very elegant building, from a design by Stark, had been erected for its reception at a cost of £12.000.

Next in order comes the Andersonian University, founded in 1796, by John Anderson, A.M., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow. He bequeathed by his will the whole of his library, philosophical museum and apparatus, and all his effects, as a foundation for an educational institution, to be called by the above name. According to the intention of the founder, it was to consist of four colleges, viz., arts, medicine, law, and theology, with a suitable staff of professors in each. The funds proving inadequate to so extensive a plan, the trustees commenced it partially; and Dr. Garnett, the Professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and subsequently Dr. Birkbeck, soon became the instructors of thousands of mechanics. It was part of the plan, that besides the scientific courses, a class similar to that taught by Dr. Anderson himself should always be formed. Anderson, therefore, was the first who founded an educational institution, one of the essential elements of which was to throw 66 open the temple of science to the hard-labouring artisan, and the hitherto despised mechanic." The advantages of such courses of lectures being so obvious, they are still crowded

Dr.

by the working men of Glasgow. The plan of the founder has been fully carried out with regard to two of the colleges-arts and medicine. Regular courses, by teachers of acknowledged merit, are given in mathematics, natural philosophy, and the modern languages. The medical department, however, has most fully come up to the intentions of the founder. The medical school of Anderson's University is one of the acknowledged medical institutions of the country; and from the eminence of the professors, many of whom have subsequently obtained positions of high standing, together with the valuable character of the instruction afforded in the Royal Infirmary, great numbers of students come from all parts of the kingdom, to receive their medical education at this school.

We may next notice the Athenæum, now in its 15th session. "The object of this institution is to place within the reach of the public the fullest and most recent information on all subjects of general interest, whether commercial, literary, or scientific; to provide an agreeable place of resort in the intervals of business; to excite, especially among young men, a taste for intellectual and elevating pursuits; and to secure the means for its gratification, by affording the utmost facilities for systematic study in various branches of useful knowledge." The following is a brief abstract of the course for the present session:

Department I.-Language and Lite

rature.

Classical Division.-Latin and Roman History.

Foreign Languages.-French, German, Spanish.

English Division.-Grammar, Composition, and Literature.

Logic and Mental Science; Elocution and Oratorical Gesticulation.

Department II-Science and Art; comprising arithmetic and mathematics, writing and book-keeping, music, animal physiology, mercantile law, and