in general of a moderate height; but some tribes, as the Patagonians and Caribbees, are distinguished by their height and strength. Their complexion is of a reddish copper hue, frequently approaching the colour of mahogany; and it is observed that this colour does not appear to be subject to change from any influence of climate, or from the use of clothing. The inhabitants of Patagonia and of the Antarctic Archipelago have as dark a hue as the tribes which wander about on the banks of the Amazon river. They have generally a large head, a narrow forehead, prominent cheek-bones, and thick lips. Their hair is black, coarse, long, extremely lank and shining, and it very rarely grows white with advanced age. They have generally little hair on their chin, but they are not altogether beardless. Their eyes are rather small, narrow, and placed somewhat obliquely, their outer angles being a little turned up towards the temples. As some of these characteristic features, such as the colour of the skin and hair, the thinness of the beard, the prominent check-bones, and the position of the eyes, are likewise the distinguishing marks of the Mongol race, this resemblance in features gives some weight to the supposition that the Aborigines of America are descended from tribes belonging to the last-mentioned race. But this fact becomes doubtful when it is observed that the form of the skull is essentially different in the two races,—the forehead of the Americans being considerably inclined backwards, and with it the whole facial line; while, in the Mongols, it approaches much more to the form of the skull of the Caucasian race; and, although the cheek-bones of the Americans are as prominent as those of the Mongols, they are more rounded and not so angular.

The Esquimaux who inhabit the shores of America along the Icy Sea, and the islands of the Arctic Archipelago, doubtless belong to the Mongol race, and must have passed from Asia into America.

Considering the great similarity which the aboriginal tribes of America present in their bodily conformation, it might appear surprising that they speak so great a variety of languages. It has been estimated that the number of American languages exceeds five hundred, and it is probable that it is not less than six hundred. There are certainly many roots, which are common to most of them, but the languages themselves differ so far that the various tribes do not understand one another, or find it easy to acquire the languages of their neighbours. This is particularly the case with the languages spoken by the aboriginal tribes in South America. Some of these languages are limited to small tribes consisting of a very few families, whilst others are spoken over a great extent of country, and by many tribes. Of the latter, the most extended in South America seems to be the Quichua language, commonly called the language of the Incas, which is spoken in all the elevated valleys of the Andes from the Equator to the tropic of Capricorn. North of the Equator, in New Granada, the Maipuri and Galibic languages are spoken by many tribes. A considerable portion of the Indian population of Central America uses

the Quiché language, and the Aztek tongue is widely spoken over the table lands of Mexico. A greater similarity exists between the languages of the tribes which inhabit North America. That which is commonly called the Cree language is very widely diffused among the tribes east of the Rocky Mountains, and the roots of this language appear in the names of numerous rivers, lakes, and mountains. The language of the Esquimaux prevails among the tribes which inhabit the shores and islands of the Icy Sea.

The aboriginal tribes of America may be divided into three classes, with regard to the degree of civilisation which they have attained. The first class comprehends those who, at the time of the discovery of America by Europeans (1492), lived in regularly-formed societies; the second, those whose condition has in some degree been changed by their intercourse with foreigners; and the third, the savage tribes, who still adhere to the mode of life which they followed at the time of the discovery.

The first class is the most numerous, and comprehends more than half of the whole Indian population. They inhabit the elevated tablelands, or live in the valleys of the Andes. In Mexico there existed the well regulated and extensive kingdom of Anahuac; and, in the northern parts of central America, the smaller states of Quiché and Katchikel. The kingdom of Cundinamarca occupied a considerable part of the valleys of the republic of New Granada; and that of the Incas, or of Cuzco, extended from the line so far south as to comprehend the valley of the Desaguadero in Bolivia. In all these countries the natives lived in a regulated social state. They inhabited villages and towns, and applied themselves to agriculture. They had not only adopted the division of labour, but carried it to some extent. Property was secured by law; and custom and positive institutions together regulated the different orders in society. That they had attained a considerable degree of civilisation may be inferred from the numerous ruins of palaces, temples, and causeways which occur in several parts. The short time which the Spaniards required to conquer all these countries may be attributed to the fact, that the inhabitants, who were attached to the soil of which they were the proprietors, were able to furnish the invaders with all that they required for the maintenance of their armies. The discovery of America was a disastrous event to the Indians; it interrupted the course of civilisation, and, by occupying them perpetually with their defence, or the labour exacted from them by the invaders, it stopped all improvement. These Indians have therefore remained stationary since their conquest. The Spaniards, it is true, left their villages and smaller communities to be governed by persons chosen by the inhabitants; but they did nothing in other respects to improve the condition of the natives; and even the Roman Catholic clergy limited their exertions mostly to imparting to Indian superstitions the outward appearance of Christian rites.

All the other parts of America were inhabited by savage tribes, who

lived in small societies not regulated by well-established customs or laws. They had either not adopted agriculture, or had made very small progress in it; individual property in the soil was therefore nearly unknown. They gained their subsistence either by hunting or fishing; and frequently they united both occupations. It was impossible to reduce to subjection nations that lead such a course of life; and Europeans had accordingly a much more difficult task in dealing with such men than that of merely conquering them. They were reduced to the necessity of establishing colonies on the sea-coast, and of trying to get possession of the country in which they had settled. The progress of the colonists was slow, and their struggles with the natives long and often bloody. By purchase, by fraud, and by force, the white man gradually gained a secure footing; and now he occupies, as exclusive owner, the best part of the North American continent.

In South America, the members of several religious orders, especially the Jesuits, undertook the task of civilising the savage tribes, and by their perseverance succeeded in bringing about some change in their mode of life. This change, however, was limited to giving them some additional disposition towards agricultural pursuits, a greater attachment to landed property, and a taste for permanent dwellings and a more domestic and tranquil and less roving kind of life. But the mind of the Indians has not been improved. They betray a complete indifference to the religious tenets, though not to the ceremonies, of the Christian faith, and, in most cases, a decided aversion to adopt the manners and habits of the whites who live in their vicinity. The degree of civilisation which they have reached is in most places much below that of the first class. Small as this civilisation is, its progress has been very slow; for after the continued exertions of the priests for more than two hundred years, it has hardly extended as many miles from the coast into the interior, and many portions even of the seashore are still occupied by savage tribes which avoid all intercourse with Europeans. These natives (which form the third class) unite, in the colder countries of America, the occupation of the fisherman with the roving life of the hunter, but in the forests of South America they live peaceably in villages, obey some chief, and cultivate bananas, mandiocca, and cotton in small quantity. They employ the cotton in weaving hammocks. At certain seasons of the year they leave their dwellings, and indulge in the pleasures of a roving life. Many of these tribes go entirely naked.

The number of the first class may amount to about 6,000,000; that of the second to 1,500,000; and the last is commonly estimated also at 1,500,000; but, as the last class still occupies more than one-half of the continent, this estimate seems somewhat too low.

The foreign nations that have settled in America since its discovery are either Europeans or negroes from Africa. All the Christian nations

of Europe have sent settlers to America. The English, Spaniards, and Portuguese form the greatest numbers: the Dutch, French, Germans, and Danes are much fewer. Sweden, Italy, and Russia have sent the smallest number of all. The Russians are only settled on the northwest coast.

The negroes have been carried to America as slaves, and employed in cultivating the soil; the greater part of them still continue in the state of slavery. With the exception of a number of slaves whom the Portuguese in Brazil imported from Mozambique, all the present negro population of America has been drawn from the western coast of Africa, between the mouth of the Senegal and Cabo Negro, or between 20° N. lat. and 20° S. lat.

By the intermixture of these three races, which differ so widely in complexion and other physical characters, new races have arisen, which are called mixed races. Metis, or Mestizos, owe their origin to the intermixture of Europeans with American women, and in Brazil are clled Mameluccos; Mulattoes are the children of a white and negro; Zambos are the descendants of the Aborigines and persons belonging to the pure African race. Persons born of a mulatto or Metis woman and a European are called Quadroons or Quaterons, and if a Quateron marries a European the descendants are called Quinterons. In some parts, however, different names are given to these mixtures; and in other parts of America all such terms of distinction are unknown.

The descendants of the pure European race are sometimes called Creoles, except in Brazil, where this name is applied to the descendants of Africans. The Europeans themselves in Mexico are called Gachupines.

In comparison with the old continent, America is still very thinly inhabited. According to the most probable estimate its population amounts to about 48,000,000.

The numbers are supposed to be nearly as follow:—

Europeans, and descendants of Europeans

26,000,000

the Dutch, German, Danish, Swedish, and Russian 500,000

the native languages

9,000,000

48,000,000

The great majority of the population profess, at least externally, the Christian religion. According to a rough calculation, the Roman Catholic faith numbers about 23 millions of followers, and the different denominations of the Protestant religion about 20. It is probable that the numbers of natives, who have not embraced the Christian faith amounts to somewhat more than 2 millions, and the number of negroes, who make no regular profession of faith, may be as great.

THE COLUMBIAN SEA AND THE COLUMBIAN ARCHIPELAGO, OR THE WEST INDIES.

EXTENT AND BOUNDARY. DIVISIONS. THE BAHAMA SEA. THE CARIBBEAN SEA. THE GULF OF MEXICO.

THE Atlantic Ocean, which forms the eastern boundary of America, between 10° and 30° N. lat. extends far into that continent, forming a deep bay or rather a mediterranean sea, which might with great propriety be called the Columbian Sea, having been the principal scene of the active life of the great discoverer of America. It is generally called the Gulf of Mexico; which name, however, properly belongs only to the northern portion of it. It extends from east to west over 37 degrees, between 61° and 98° W. long., in a direction from south-cast to north

west.

This mediterranean sea is inclosed on three sides by the continent of America; and even on the east it does not present an open expanse of water, being separated from the Atlantic by a chain of islands and banks. The boundary-line, by which it is thus separated from the ocean, may be supposed to begin on the north at the Strait of Florida, where the Matanilla Reef commences, in 27° 30′ N. lat. and 79° W. long. From this point it runs due south-cast along the outer edge of the Bahama Islands and the banks to Crooked Island, between 22° and 23° N. lat. and 74° W. long., where it begins to decline somewhat more to the east, and continues in that direction to Point Bruquen, in the island of Puerto Rico. This island, and the cluster of islands which extend farther east, lie due east and west, and terminate in that direction with the island of Barbuda, between 17° and 18° N. lat., and near 62° W. long. From this island the boundary-line runs nearly due south, through 9 degrees of latitude, along the Windward Islands to Trinidad.

This inland sea is divided into two portions by the island of Cuba, which extends nearly across the Columbian Sea, and by the peninsula of Yucatan, which projects into it in a north north-east direction; these two portions are the Caribbean Sea, extending south and south-east from Cuba, and the Gulf of Mexico, extending north-west from that