Scotia. He was knighted in 1885. In 1886 he was returned to the Dominion House of Commons.

ARCHIDAMUS, är'ki-dā'mus (Gk. Αρχίσ Sapos, Archidamos) II. (?-B.C. 427). A son of Zeuxidamus, and King of Sparta. He became king after the banishment of his grandfather, Leotychides, B.C. 469. In the fourth year of his reign Greece was shaken by a terrible earthquake, and Sparta was left a heap of ruins. Archidamus was at that time foremost in crushing the uprising of the Helots. Before the Peloponnesian War, he spoke in favor of arriving at a peaceable settlement of the matters under dispute. In B.C. 431 he led an army into Attica, and in the three following years conducted campaigns. He was the father of the famous Agesilaus.

ARCHIDAMUS III. (?-B.C. 338), son of Agesilaus and King of Sparta. He succeeded his father in B.C. 358. In B.C. 367 he defeated the Arcadians in the so-called "Tearless Battle." In B.C. 362, shortly before the battle of Mantinea, he successfully defended Sparta against Epaminondas. At the beginning of the Sacred War he attacked the Phocians. In B.C. 338 he led an army to Italy to aid the Tarentines, and was killed in battle on the same day on which Philip won the battle of

Charonea.

ARCHIDAMUS IV., a grandson of Archidamus III., and King of Sparta. It is not known when he came to the throne or how long he ruled. He was king in B.C. 294, for he was defeated in battle in that year by Demetrius Poliorcetes.

ARCHIDAMUS V., a grandson of Archidamus IV., brother of Agis IV., and King of Sparta.

On the occasion of his brother's murder (240 B.C.) he fled, but subsequently returned with the object of reestablishing his power. He was, however, almost immediately slain by his brother's murderers, who feared his vengeance. Archidamus V. was the last king of the Eurypontid line. ARCHIDAMUS. A Bohemian lord in Shake speare's A Winter's Tale, appearing only in Act i., Scene 1.

ARCHIL, är'kil (of uncertain origin), or ORCHIL, ôr'kil (Orseille). A coloring substance obtained from various species of lichens. The archil is not originally present in the lichens, but is developed by the following treatment: The lichens, collected from rocks near the sea, are ground into a pulp with water and diluted ammonia is added; certain colorless acids (erythric

acid, etc.) contained in the lichens gradually change, under this treatment, into a purple substance, orcein, which is the coloring principle of archil. (If in the same process, the carbonate of sodium or of potassium is added to the pulp, ordinary litmus is produced in place of orceïn.) Archil is used in the dyeing of silks and of woolen cloth where a beautiful brown color is required; but though a brilliant rich hue is imparted to the fabric, the color is not permanent, being easily acted upon by the rays of the sun. Hence archil is seldom used by itself; the fabric is first dyed by another coloring matter, and then archil is applied to impart to it a brilliant

lustre.

Archil imparts a beautiful and durable violet color to marble. It has also been used in coloring wines. It is brought into the market in three different forms. The name archil is commonly

applied to the ordinary pasty form. When offered in the form of a dry mass it is called persis, while powdered archil is known as cudbear. The lichens used in the manufacture of archil Madagascar, Zanzibar, the Canary Isles, and a grow on the rocky coasts of South America, number of other places. They belong principally to the genus Roccella. They are sometimes called orchella-weed, or dyer's moss.

ARCHILOCHUS, är-kilô-kus (Gk.'Apxídoxos, Archilochos). A native of the island of Paros, who flourished in the Seventh Century B.C., and is regarded as the first of the Greek lyric poets, although the origin of the elegy is claimed by Callinus, a writer whose age seems to have slightly preceded that of Archilochus. Glimpses of his life, especially of the calamities which befell him, were frequently given in his writings. His father's name was Telesicles; his mother was a slave called Enipo. At an early age, becoming entangled in political contests, he abandoned his native town and led a colony of its citizens to Thasos, in 650 or 640 B.C. While here, as he informs us in some extant verses, he lost his shield in a battle against the Thracians, yet not through cowardice. Subsequently he was banished from Sparta, to which he had gone, some say because he had vindicated his conduct in running away from the fight, others, because of the license of his verses. He is said to have gained the laurel-wreath at the Olympic games by an ode in honor of Hercules, but this is doubtful. Having returned to Paros, he took part in the war which broke out between it and Naxos, in the course of which he lost his life. The Delphian oracle pronounced a curse upon his slayer. Variety, novelty, and satirical bitterness characterized his lyric poems; so much so that "Archilochian bitterness" and "Parian verse" became bywords in ancient times. He scourged his enemies in the most merciless fashion, and always displayed the most malicious skill in selecting for his sarcasm the points on which they were most sensitive. It is said that Lycambes, who had promised his daughter Neobule in marriage to Archilochus, having failed to fulfill his promise, was so severely satirized by the poet that, to escape ridicule, both father and daughter hanged themselves. Among the ancients, Archilochus was ranked with Homer. They dedicated the statues of both on the same day, and placed the head of Archilochus beside that of Homer on the same herm. As Homer was regarded as the inventor of the poetry of the the creator of epic poetry, so Archilochus was passions and of biting raillery, and he became the model for the Old Athenian Comedy and for later poets-e.g., for Horace in his earlier

period.

He is said to have invented many new metrical forms, but his fame and influence were due primarily to his native genius. Only bare fragments of his compositions remain; edited by Bergk, Poeta Lyrici Græci (Leipzig, 1882); Reitzenstein, "Zwei neue Fragmente der Epoden des Archilochos," in Sitzungsberichte der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin, 1899).

ARCHIMAGE, är'ki-māj. (1) The foul magician who, in Spenser's Faerie Queene, assumes the guise of the Red Cross Knight, and thereby entices Una from her search. He stands, in the allegory, for the personification of False

ARCHIMAGE.

hood. (2) The personification of Indolence in Thomson, Castle of Indolence (1748).

ARCHIMANDRITE, är'ki-măn'drit (Late Gk. apxuavopirns, archimandrites, from Gk. ápx-, archi-, chief + μávdpa, mandra, a fold, i.e., a convent). The title of the highest order of superiors of convents in the Greek Church, corresponding to abbot (q.v.) in the Latin Church; except that, strictly speaking, an archimandrite presides over several monasteries, whereas the hegumenos was over only one, and so the latter was nearer to an ordinary abbot. The Russian bishops are chosen from among the archimandrites.

ARCHIMEDEAN MIRROR, är'ki-mê-de'an. See MIRROR.

ARCHIMEDES, är'ki-me'dez (from Archimedes' Screw; see below). A genus of fossil Bryozoa of the family Fenestellida, common in some so-called "Archimedes Limestones" of the early Carboniferous age in the Mississippi Valley and in some of the southwestern States. The minute animals of this genus dwelt in colonies attached to the ocean floor, and secreted a calcareous framework of spiral form, the axis of which resembles the Archimedes' screw (q.v.). Continuing the comparison-the thread of the screw is produced as a reticulated expansion, upon the upper surface of which are situated the cells that served as dwelling-places for the individuals. The cell-bearing portion of the colony is seldom found connected with the spiral axis, having, by reason of its delicacy, been usually broken off by the action of the waves. Some nearly complete examples have been found in the soft shales of the Keokuk group at Crawfordsville, Ind. See also BRYOZOA; CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM; and for illustration, see plate POLYZOA.

ARCHIMEDES (Gk. 'Apxyunons, Archimedes) (B.C. 287-212). A Greek geometrician and mechanician, the greatest mathematician of antiquity. He was born in the State of Syracuse, in the Island of Sicily. He studied probably under Conon at the University of Alexandria, spending the major part of his life in Sicily. He was killed in the sack of Syracuse. The most important among his extant works include three on plane geometry, three on solid geometry, one on arithmetic, and three on mechanics. In the treatise on the measurement of the circle, the value of is given as a number less than 3 and greater than 39. He also gave formulas for the area of the circle and the ellipse, and for the sector of a spiral whose equation is r=ce. His demonstration that the area of a segment of a parabola is two-thirds that of the inclosing parallelogram is the first real example of the quadrature (q.v.) of a curvilinear surface. His method of exhaustion is suggestive of the modern methods of calculus. In the works on solid geometry are treated the volumes of spheroids and conoids. His arithmetical work, known by its Latin titie, Arenarius (sand-reckoner), contains his famous attempt to express the amount of sand required to fill the universe. This work has given rise to the conjecture that Archimedes invented a new and powerful system of notation, all knowledge of which perished with the work itself. Besides his work in pure mathematics, Archimedes also made valuable contributions to applied mathematics, including applications of geometry to the theory of machines, as levers,

ARCHIMEDES' SCREW.

pulleys, and screws. He also improved the methods of finding centres of gravity. In accordance with a wish of Archimedes, Marcellus raised in his honor a tomb, on which was engraved a sphere inscribed in a cylinder. Cicero, in his Tuscan Disputations, gives a charming account of his discovery of the tomb in B.C. 75. The most noted editions of Archimedes' works are those of J. Torelli (Oxford, 1792); J. L. Heiberg (Leipzig, 1881); and T. L. Heath (Cambridge, 1897).

ARCHIMEDES' SCREW (called also SPIRAL PUMP). A machine for raising water, said to have been invented by Archimedes, during his stay in Egypt, for draining and irrigating the land. Its simplest form consists of a flexible tube bent spirally round a solid cylinder, the ends of which are furnished with pivots, so as to admit of the whole turning round its axis, as is shown in Fig. 1. The machine is placed in an inclined position, so that the lower mouth of the tube may dip below the surface of the water to be raised. The lowest bend of the tube will be filled with water, and if now the handle be made to turn in the direction of the hands of a watch, the mouth of the spiral tube will be raised above the surface; and the water inclosed in the tube, having no means of escape, will flow within it until, after one revolution, it will occupy the second bend. The first bend has meanwhile

received a second charge, which, after a second revolution, flows up into the second bend, and takes the place of the first charge, which has now moved up to the third bend. When, therefore, as many revolutions of the cylinder have been made as there are turns in the spiral tube, each of the lower bends will be filled with water; and in the course of another revolution, there being no higher bend for the water of the first charge to occupy, it will flow out of the tube by its upper mouth. At each succeeding revolution, the lowest bend will be charged, and the highest discharged. It will be seen that there may be room to dispose a second tube side by side with the

first, round the cylinder, in which case the screw would be called double-threaded. In the ordinary construction of these machines, the cylinder itself is hollowed out into a double or triplethreaded screw, and inclosed in a water-tight case, which turns round with it, the space between the threads supplying the place of tubes. It is sometimes found convenient to fix the exterior envelope, and to make the screw work within it, the outer edge of the latter being as close as possible to the former without actual contact, as is shown in Fig. 2. This modification of the Archimedes' Screw receives the name of 'water-screw,' and frequently of 'Dutch screw,' from its use in Holland for draining low grounds. ARCHIMEDES, THE PRINCIPLE OF. One of the most important principles in the science of hydrostatics, so called because the discovery of it is generally ascribed to the Syracusan philosopher. It may be thus stated: A body, when entirely surrounded by a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. This is an immediate consequence of the principles of fluid pressure, which prove also that the line of action of the upward force is vertically through the centre of gravity of the displaced fluid. When bodies lighter than water wholly immersed in it, they displace an amount of water of greater weight than their own, so that if left free to adjust themselves, they rise to the surface and float, only as much of their bulk being submerged as will displace a quantity of water weighing the same as themselves. cordingly, while bodies heavier than water displace, when put into it, their own volume, bodies lighter than water displace, when allowed to float on the surface, their own weight of the fluid. Bodies of the same density as water, according to the principle of Archimedes, have no tendency to rise or sink in it, for the water displaced by them weighs precisely the same as they do. Similar statements may be made with respect to bodies surrounded by other liquids or by gases-e.g., the atmospheric air. The buoyancy of balloons is an illustration of the principle of Archimedes as applied to the atmosphere. See

HYDROSTATICS.

are

Ac

ARCHIPELAGO, är’ki-pěl'å-go (Gk. apxt Téλayos, archipelagos, chief sea, originally the Egean Sea, to distinguish it from the other smaller Grecian waters; from ȧpx-, archi-, chief +éλayos, pelagos, sea). A term now applied to any definite sheet of water interspersed with many islands, but formerly restricted to the gean Sea (with its islands), which lies between Greece and Asia Minor. The islands are usually divided into two groups, the Cyclades and the Sporades. Of the former group Delos, Lyra, Cythnos, Thera, Andros, and Melos are more prominent; of the Sporades, which belong to Turkey, Rhodes, Cos, Patmos, Samos, and Lemnos are the more significant. They are of volcanic origin, have a healthful climate and beautiful scenery. These islands have played a great part in the course of Greek history, giving to the world poets and philosophers. more detailed description, see CYCLADES; SPOBADES; and individual islands.

For a

ARCHITECTS, är'ki-těkts, AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF. A society established in 1857. In 1906 it had 27 chapters, 339 fellows, 420 associate members, and 54 honorary members.

ARCHITECTURE, ärʼki-těk'tûr (Lat. architectura, Gk. apxITEKTOVía, architektonia, from apx-, archi-, chief + TEKTOV, tekton, worker in wood; carpenter, craftsman). In its widest sense this term includes any kind of construction, such as works of military and naval architecture and civil engineering; but strictly speaking it is building raised by certain æsthetic qualities to the rank of art, as distinguished from purely utilitarian or mechanical building. Its name shows that it was regarded by the ancients as the chief art, comprising all others, the architect being director of works, and responsible for whatever sculpture and painting was used in connection with the building. This ancient tradition ruled throughout the Middle Ages, and it was not until the Renaissance in the Fifteenth Century that architecture lost its right to govern Because architecture had this the other arts. character of the most universal art, using sculpture and painting in subordination, the formation of what we call an architectural style-like the Greek or the Gothic style-was a complex and gradual process. For architecture, being one of the earliest and most constant expressions of civilization, is not the artificial product of the free conception of a few artists, but is fundamentally affected, on the one side by the religious and social elements of society, whose demands it must meet, and on the other by the material elements such as the influences of climate, of materials of construction and decoration, which originality. So that in every age, architecture is a faithful mirror of contemporary society, and at once the most material and the most ideal of the fine arts.

limit or in certain directions stimulate artistic

EGYPT. In respect to historic development, Egypt and Babylonia-the valleys of the Nile, and of the Tigris and Euphrates-are rivals for seniority in the field, which they seem to have held alone for one or more thousand years, while the rest of the world went without architecture. It is true that the early monuments of Egypt between c.5000 and 2500 B.C. are works of mere building rather than of art. The pre-pyramidal tombs; the pyramids themselves; the primitive chapels or temples connected with them (such as the "Temple of the Sphinx"); the early mastabatombs and all other works of the Ancient Empire, have few truly architectural features. The pyramids are a mere mass of material; the temples and tombs, even when supported by piers, have no moldings, decorations, or details that indicate style. It is only in the Middle Empire (c.2500) that the type of columnar temple was evolved, which became the glory of Egypt, and that tombs were made as at Beni-Hassan (see article on TOMB)-where there were

columns and other features with a distinct artistic character-such as the 'Doric' type and the clustered-palm type. The destructive invasion of the Shepherd Kings has forever obscured this second stage of Egyptian architecture, and for a knowledge of its possibilities the Golden Age is that of the New Empire, especially between c. 1600 and 1400, supplemented by the much later constructions of the Ptolemaic Age, almost equally magnificent. Some of the temples were entirely excavated in the rock, like those at Abu-Simbel (q.v. for illustration); others were partly excavated, partly structural, as at Deir-el-Bahari; but the great majority were built entirely in the