were included in this modern side. While this condition has much improved, the serious attention given to instruction in the sciences is fostered by the Department for Science and Art (in 1898 combined with the Department of Education). This department was created in 1853, though little of importance was done until after 1859. Schools or classes in which instruction is afforded in physics, zoölogy, chemistry, geology, mineralogy, botany, as well as in a variety of practical subjects, are now granted a subvention. In this manner more than ten thousand classes are assisted at the present time. In 1901 there were seventy-eight independent "science schools" of secondary rank. the acade mies of the United States In America the academies were the home of instruction in Science in the sciences from the first (p. 251). Astronomy and "natural philosophy" were the ones most emphasized, since these were most formulated during the eighteenth century. Geography was almost universally taught in these schools and chemistry frequently. A list of text-books published in the United States in 1804 includes six geographies as the only scientific text-books besides those of applied mathematics, such as surveying and navigation. By 1832 there were 39 geographies, 11 astronomies, 6 botanies, 5 chemistries, 6 natural philosophies. Most of these were designed for use in academies. It is needless to add that all the sciences were studied from books, though resort to experimentation with apparatus was frequently made for illustration. The first unmistakable evidence that any of these subjects composed a vital part of the secondary curriculum was the inclusion of geography among the college entrance requirenents by Harvard in 1807. No other science followed as an entrance requirement until physical geography was added in 1870, and physics two years later. high With the development of the early high schools, the emphasis and in the upon the sciences was continued. The earliest high school, that of Boston, founded in 1821, included geography in the first year; geometry, trigonometry, navigation and surveying in the second; and natural philosophy and astronomy in the Science study Science in the Elementary School. In Germany the influence introduced of the naturalistic tendency under Basedow has been mentioned through Pestalozzianism It was the Pestalozzian movement, introduced into Prussia in 1810, and into other German states later, that made such elementary science studies general. Geometry was incorporated into the curriculum of the upper grades and drawing was offered throughout the course. Geography, taught by the inductive method and introducing much general information of scientific character, was included throughout. The study of science, including elementary physics, physiology, and natural history that dealt with the phenomena of botany and zoölogy in an elementary scientific way, was introduced into the middle and Present state upper grades. In most of the grades these sciences were allowed two hours a week, though in some of the upper grades four. This remains the situation to the present time. For almost a century, then, science has been recognized as one of the subjects of the elementary schools throughout almost the whole of the German-speaking countries. of science in German schools In England. - The condition of elementary schools was so chaotic until the establishment of board, or public, schools in 1870, that it is difficult to speak of general conditions. The supplemen schools of England attitude of the Department of Science and Art in fostering Required science study, especially in giving encouragement to drawing and recently to manual training, has been mentioned. The tary subjects establishment of numerous organized science schools since 1872 in elementary by the same department has also been referred to. Until 1900 the "three R's" were the only required studies in the primary schools. The teaching of other subjects was controlled by the governmental grants given for results in various subjects. The most popular of these supplementary subjects were geography and elementary science. These have now been included in the compulsory course. R's" in early In the United States. The question concerning the proper subjects for the elementary curriculum hardly existed before the middle of the nineteenth century. The "three R's," The "three reading, writing and arithmetic, with spelling and grammar, American were without any rivals whatever. In fact, the average school schools included only reading, spelling and English grammar, while those of a superior sort added writing, arithmetic, geography and history.1 The first subject of scientific character that made any head- Introduction way in its claims for representation was geography. By 1832, physiology of geography, thirty-nine geographies and atlases, many of them for elementary school work, had been published in the United States. The second subject of scientific nature to find entrance into the elementary curriculum was physiology. This was especially the case in the New England region, and was due to the advocacy of Horace Mann, who, from 1837, continued his propaganda in favor of this subject. The first English text book on physiology of elementary character appeared in 1837; its introduction into elementary schools followed slowly, and in 1850 the state legislature of Massachusetts made compulsory the teaching of the subject in the elementary schools. Object teach- and nature study ing, and along with this the study of simple phenomena of nature, were introduced through the Pestalozzian movement 1 Hinsdale, Horace Mann and the Common School Revival, Ch. I. (pp. 317-8). Nature study has been a more recent outgrowth of this and other influences. SUMMARY The scientific tendency during nineteenth-century education is but a continuation of the movement discussed under the sense-realism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The chief characteristics are emphasis on the importance (1) of the content of studies and especially of the knowledge of natural phenomena, and (2) of the inductive method of study, This movement becomes especially prominent during the nineteenth century because of the great development of the natural sciences and the necessity for a knowledge of these as a practical equipment for life as a part of modern culture. This leads to a new conception of a liberal education, namely, that it should contain the best culture material of the life for which it is designed to prepare. A necessity for a choice among subjects arises and the modern principle of election or choice among subjects results. The scientific tendency harmonizes with the sociological in that both make for the democratization of education or the liberalizing of all education so far as possible. While there were many advocates of scientific education during the nineteenth century, the most noted among English-speaking people were Spencer and Huxley. The introduction of the sciences into school curricula came slowly. In the universities their introduction began (1694) with the realistic movement in the German universities, but even there the reform' proceeded slowly. Not until the second quarter of the nineteenth century did the sciences make much headway in the United States and not until half a century later in England. The academies, high schools and German real-schools provided for their introduction into secondary education. Geography was quite generally introduced into elementary education in the early nineteenth century. Physiology followed about the middle of the century. Pestalozzianism introduced nature study under form of object teaching. Nature study in more recent form, agriculture and elementary physics are quite recently introduced into the most advanced elementary schools. CHAPTER XIII THE SOCIOLOGICAL TENDENCY IN EDUCATION between the sociological logical GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.-The sociological and psy- Difference chological tendencies are not antagonistic, nor are the corresponding conceptions of education mutually exclusive. The and psychopsychologists look upon education as the process of the develop- tendencies ment of the individual; they approach the subject through the study of psychical activities; they emphasize the importance of method. The sociologists look upon education as the process of perpetuating and developing society; they approach the subject through a study of social structure, social activities, social needs; they conceive the purpose of education to be the preparation of the individual for successful participation in the economic, political and social activities of his fellows. interest matter. Raises ques cational value Besides this difference in point of view and of emphasis, a Sociological few other characteristics may be noted. The extraordinary chiefly in interest in appropriate subjects of study for every stage of subjecteducation, from kindergarten to university, is an outgrowth of the sociological influence. This interest raises the question of tion of edu educational values. Consequently, all traditional studies have been subjected to this test, with the result that some have been rejected and that all are being reorganized. There have been in almost every subject of study many elisions and many additions. When there was raised the question, What knowledge is of most worth in order that the individual may take his place in society? less and less importance was assigned to the purely linguistic and literary inheritance, and more and more to the knowledge of the phenomena of the natural environment, to the laws of the forces of nature, and to the knowledge of social |