no better. The master sang to them the psalm tunes over and over, until they could sing them, or rather screech them, after him. Such was the condition of instruction in our schools during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and two thirds of the eighteenth centuries; confined to one or two studies, and those taught in the most imperfect and mechanical way."

of such

schools

transformed

home

tive method

While this was the character of the schools of Switzerland Universality and of Germany, those of other countries were no better, if as good. That such was the condition of the average district school in the United States well into the nineteenth century and of the average elementary school in England much later is well known. The school which Pestalozzi wished to substitute was to be a transformed home, approximating the same relationships, The new duplicating the same spirit, seeking the same ends; that is, the school, a moral and intellectual development and the material betterment of the child. It is the peculiar excellence of Pestalozzi that he was the first to make great progress in indicating the practical way in which these new educational ideas could be realized. The essential thought of the Pestalozzian method is compara- The inductively simple. The fundamental endeavor was to analyze applied to knowledge in any particular line into its simplest elements, as educational procedure these present themselves naturally to the attention of the child. These were to be acquired not simply in their form, but in their real inner meaning by the process of observation, or sense impression (intuition, it was often called). These elements of knowledge were further to be developed by a progressive series of exercises graded by almost imperceptible degrees into a continuous chain. Such exercises were to be based primarily upon the study of objects rather than upon the study of words. The object lesson, then, was the core of the method. But it The object was not the object lesson as often employed in later times, for the mere purpose of obtaining a knowledge of the object, or even of developing powers of observation. Its real use was as a basis for the entire mental development of the child. "Mental" arithmetic, the syllabic and phonetic methods in language work, and the study of geography and of nature in direct con

lesson

Effect on text-books

Summary of

tact with natural environment were some of the innovations in method.

In general, the arrangement of all modern text-books is a direct though not necessarily an immediate outgrowth of Pestalozzi's efforts at analyzing the subject into its simplest elements and proceeding then, by a gradual increase in the complexity of the material, to build up a connected and symmetrical understanding of the subject. The old method of beginning with a mastery of rules and principles as in arithmetic, of the rules of abstract form in language, or of most general relations, as in geography, history and the natural sciences, has been gradually superseded.

Morf, one of Pestalozzi's ablest disciples, summarizes th general principles of these methods as follows:

(1) Observation, or sense-perception (intuition), is the basis of instru Pestalozzian tion. (2) Language should always be linked with observation (intuition principles i.e. with an object or content. (3) The time for learning is not the time fr judgment and criticism. (4) In any branch, teaching should begin with the simplest elements and proceed gradually according to the development of the child, that is, in psychologically connected order. (5) Sufficien time should be devoted to each point of the teaching in order to secure the complete mastery of it by the pupil. (6) Teaching should aim at development, and not at dogmatic exposition. (7) The teacher should respect the individuality of the pupil. (8) The chief end of elementary teaching is not to impart knowledge and talent to the learner, but to develop and increase the powers of his intelligence. (9) Power must be linked to knowledge, and skill to learning. (10) The relation between the teacher and the pupil, especially as to discipline, should be based upon and ruled by love. (11) Instruction should be subordinate to the higher aim of education.

Sympathy,

the only basis of relation

Influence on the General Spirit of the Schoolroom. In regard to method, as Pestalozzi himself stated in an exaggerated way, ship between "half the world" was working on the same problem. The new purpose in education was held by many others, - public men, religious leaders, philosophers and educators. In defining the new meaning of education, Pestalozzi was but making more

teacher and

pupil

explicit the ideas of Rousseau, Basedow and others. His peculiar excellence was in making evident, through all his writings and all his work, that a new spirit must pervade the schoolroom, that both teacher and pupil must breathe a new atmosphere, the atmosphere of the home. This change of spirit is clearly indicated by a comparison of accompanying illustrations; one of the typical German school before Pestalozzi's time, the other of Pestalozzi's school at Stanz. In other lines, more recent times have developed the germs of the ideas suggested by the unlettered reformer; but in this one respect, every modern schoolroom is so directly indebted to him that he may yet be called, as he was by his own teachers and followers, "Father Pestalozzi."

Difference, (1) in use of tion" or training in

"observa- .

sense-per

ception;

THE HERBARTIAN MOVEMENT. Its Relation to Pestalozzianism. Herbart built upon the work of Pestalozzi, but soon elaborated a scheme of educational principles far more fundamental. (1) The chief practical emphasis of Pestalozzi's work was on training in sense-perception. While these exercises in observation were for the purpose of developing “clear ideas,” Pestalozzi did not show how mental assimilation and mental growth take place from this starting point. Herbart showed how the product of sense-perception could be converted into ideas, through the apperceptive process, and how knowledge could be made to bear upon moral character through the process of instruction. (2) Pestalozzi made the study of the physical world (2) in conthrough sense-perception the chief activity of the school. Herbart made the moral presentation of the universe the chief end of instruction. (3) As a result, the emphasis which Pestalozzi placed on arithmetic, geography and the nature studies is replaced in Herbart's theory by an emphasis on the classical languages, on literature and on history. (4) Pestalozzi announced his purpose of "psychologizing education." But, while he rejected the old psychology, he did not and could not construct any system of his own. Herbart did quite as notable work in this line as in constructive educational thought. (5) In

ception of

ultimate

aim;

(3) in appro

priate subjects of

study;

(4) in their

and use of psychology;

knowledge