terests and authority of both were invoked against it. Many of the cahiers, or books of wrongs and grievances of the early Revolution, contain complaints and recommendations concerning schools. In general, a demand was made for a national plan for education. The work of the Revolution was chiefly to lay the basis for the institutional organization of education. Much was projected but little was carried out. Education was to be universal and to be free; but it was also to be largely political and social. Even this work, the discussion of which belongs more properly under the sociological tendency, was largely checked by the Napoleonic reaction.

are seen

chiefly in

literature

In England, where Rousseau's literary influence was very In England, great, and where his social ideas found many converts, his the results educational ideas received little support. A considerable literature on the subject of education, influenced more or less by Rousseau's ideas, now appeared, and the rather extensive child literature of the early nineteenth century was a direct outgrowth of the influence of the Émile.

by the Ger

In Germany, the work of Basedow, Salzmann, Campe, and First reduced their schools was the immediate expression of the naturalistic to practice views and represents the first positive formulation in practice of mans those revolutionary ideas given only a negative form by Rous

seau.

Johann Bernard Basedow (1723-1790) gave, in his early Basedow's career and in his irregular course as a student, evidence of his early career erratic though talented nature and of his unstable character. Becoming professor of philosophy in a Danish Academy (1753), he was later transferred (1763), and, though yet salaried by the government, was soon compelled to give up all teaching on account of his unorthodox views. From 1763 he deluged Germany for many years with a succession of publications, and by his persistency succeeded in making his influence felt in spite of violent opposition on the part of all the traditional orthodox forces. For the first few years he was chiefly interested in reform in philosophical and religious teaching; most

His educaional works

of his publications were of a religious character, propagating Rousseau's idea of natural religion and morality. Coming under the influence of the Émile, from 1767 he directed his attention wholly to educational reform. In 1768 he issued An Address to the Friends of Humanity and to Persons in Power, on Schools, on Education, and its Influence on Public Happiness, which contained a plan for a complete system of reformed elementary education. Advertised through many preliminary publications,

supported by subscriptions from all parts of Europe from royalty and commonalty alike, this Elementarwerk finally appeared in 1774. At the same time was published his Book of Method for Fathers and Mothers of Families and of Nations. This Elementary Work, for children, which appeared in four volumes with one hundred plates of illustrations, was a combination of the ideas of Comenius, Bacon and Rousseau. It

tional prin

ciples and

was the first step since the time of Comenius to improve the character of the work of the school through the preparation of appropriate text-books and the radical revision of the subjectmatter of school work. It aimed first of all to give a knowledge His educaof things and of words quite similar to the encyclopedic plan of the seventeenth-century reformer. This knowledge was pri- methods marily a knowledge of natural phenomena and forces; in the next place, a knowledge of morals and of mental phenomena; and, lastly, of social duties, of commerce, of economic affairs. The "natural methods" of Rousseau appeared as the second great feature of the book. Thus through the " method of experience children were to be taught to read, both the vernacular and Latin, without weariness and without loss of time. In a similar way the truths of religion and of morality were to be imparted without the accompanying prejudices, narrowness and formalism of existing religious teaching. These volumes were soon in almost every home of the middle and upper class in Germany, just as were the Émile and the New Héloïse of Rousseau in the preceding decade. As Basedow aimed to reform private as well as public education, the effect of this propaganda was profound. Basedow and his followers, among whom Salzmann and Campe were the most important, soon produced a wholly new literature for children. As for the first time there was an education de- Children's literature signed wholly for children, not controlled by the needs, character and interests of adults, so also this was the first literature designed for children.

Notwithstanding the many defects of Basedow's personality, and the fact that he was totally unable to carry out his own reform plans because he was so unpractical, Schlosser states that "he succeeded in effecting a complete change in the whole nature of education and instruction in Germany, which Rousseau was able to accomplish neither in his native country nor in France." The Philanthropinum. — In 1774 was founded the long

1 A concrete description of the work of the Philanthropinum, translated from Von Raumer, is to be found in Barnard's German Teachers and Educators, p. 462.

i

The new "naturalistic" schools

1 Educational principles

embodied in these new

schools

Manual training and object teaching

heralded institution, erected to illustrate the principles of reformed education and termed the Philanthropinum. This institution at Dessau was the parent of many others, more cr less short lived, but existing long enough to exert a profound influence on the education of children throughout the Teutonic countries.

The fundamental idea of the reform was "education according to nature," which was interpreted to mean that children should be treated as children, not as adults; that languages should be taught by conversational methods, not through grammatical studies; that physical exercises and games should find a place in the child's education; that early training should be connected with "motion and noise," since children naturally love these; that each child should be taught a handicraft for reasons partly educational, partly social; that the vernacular rather than the classical languages should constitute the chief subject-matter of education; that instruction should be connected with realities rather than with words.

The strong emphasis upon the training of teachers reacted favorably upon the entire German school system. The introduction of "turning, planing and carpentering" into the regular course of study of the Philanthropinum for educational purposes is the earliest practical recognition of the purely educational value of positive character to be found in manual work. School instruction from objects and from pictures here found general use in a system of schools. The connection between the out-of-door life and the process of instruction was made more intimate. The principle that all instruction has a

Moral aim of moral because a practical outcome, and that formal moral in

all instruc

Mtion

struction is of little value when not thus connected, was embodied in their work. It will be recognized that all of these ideas are worked out more explicitly by later reformers, especially Herbart, Pestalozzi and Froebel.

SUMMARY

The dominance of arbitrary authority, exercised by absolutism in government, orthodoxy in religion, traditional classicism and the disciplinary conception in education, produced during the eighteenth century a vehement and revolutionary reaction. The earlier aspect of this movement, known as the Illumination or the Enlightenment, was largely intellectual and aristocratic. It included a rationalistic revolt against orthodox religious views, an aristocratic revolt against absolutism in Church and state, a revolt against Puritanism in morals. It resulted in a skepticism in religion, a cynical formalism or polished immorality in conduct, and an aristocratic indifference to the rights and needs of, the masses. The revolutionary tendency in the latter half of the century became known as the Naturalistic Movement, and was emotional rather than intellectual, democratic rather than aristocratic, and was directed toward social reform rather than toward class or individual aggrandizement. Voltaire was, the leader in the first movement, Rousseau in the second. Rousseau formulated the new ideas in regard to social, family and political reform, and finally in the Emile in regard to education. Education should not aim to instruct, but simply to allow natural tendencies to work out their natural results. Education should not aim to repress or to mold but to shield from artificial influences. Natural instincts and interests should control, close contact with nature should furnish the occasion and means of education. Only in the adolescent period and later should attempt be made to supply wider knowledge and to establish connection with social life through moral training. Out of Rousseau's teaching came the "new education" of the nineteenth century based on interest. It gave direct impetus to the clear formation of the psychological, sociological and scientific conception of education. These are the various aspects of nineteenth-century thought and practice in edu‐ cation. The immediate application of Rousseau's teachings was attempted by Basedow and the "philanthropinists." The successful amplification of the naturalistic doctrines was made later by Pestalozzi, Herbart and Froebel.