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Is this El Dorado to be at last realised in our own day? Are California and Australia to give actual existence to the fables of the Middle Ages? Modern appliances are great; chemistry and geology have done wonders; and human industry has encountered what at the beginning of the present century were deemed impossibilities. But let us not be too sanguine now as to the realities of our colonial possessions. Even gold itself may become a drug; and how sad that state of society would be when this most precious of metals, having made all equally rich, would fail to purchase that human labour from which our comforts flow!

There has been also the fable of the kingdom of Paititi, a sort of counterpart of El Dorado, another garden of the

memory of the Devonshire knight, Sir Walter Raleigh, who introduced the potato and tobacco into England in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Raleigh was one of her most favourite courtiers, and took an active part in the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588. From this time until the death of Elizabeth he was employed in various expeditions against the Spaniards, and in 1595 he sailed to Guiana, and destroyed the capital of Trinidad. The island of Trinidad lies like a huge breakwater across the mouth of the Gulf of Para, and in the south-west corner of this gulf is the Bay of Guanipa, into which flows the river of the Red Crosse, the stream that bounds the western side of the great delta of the Orinoco. Leaving his vessel in the Bay of Guanipa, Raleigh made his way in a canoe up this river

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FAC-SIMILE OF A MAP OF AFRICA WHICH BELONGED TO JUAN DE LA COSA, THE PILOT OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.

Hesperides, where inexhaustible treasures awaited the happy mortal sufficiently well instructed to follow the track. This kingdom or empire was supposed to be situated in the fertile plains of the Maranon, and to have been founded by the Incas of Peru, whose descendants knew how to conceal them from the view of the Spaniards by powerful enchantments! By degrees this myth was embellished with a thousand wonders, and the Catholic missionaries themselves contributed not a little to propagate the conviction that this imaginary kingdom was a reality. This state of things continued even in the second half of the seventeenth century. The close of the Middle Ages, therefore, had its mythical or fabulous geography, notwithstanding the real and ultimate progress made by the voyages of discovery. True science had not yet made its appearance. The name

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El Dorado" is intimately associated with the

as far as the main channel of the Orinoco, and at last reached the point where it is joined by the river Caroni. In the angle formed by the east bank of the Caroni and the south bank of the Orinoco, at the extremity of the Mountains of Emeria, a mountain range stretching from east to west, from British Guiana into the interior, lies a hilly tract of country, now the Venezuelan province of Arromaia, and here Sir Walter Raleigh placed his "Land of Gold," and declared that gold mines existed there in which more wealth lay buried than in any other part of the world. In 1615 he sailed to Guiana once more, in an expedition to reach these mines. The expedition was a failure; he returned home to meet his fate; and men said that the mines and their contents existed only in Raleigh's imagination. But subsequent discoveries have proved that Raleigh was right in saying that there was gold in Guiana, if not in such immense quantities as he supposed, for, at the present time, in the pro

vince of Arromaia, the very spot where Raleigh placed his "El Dorado," not far from the town of Puerto, on the Orinoco, is a colony of 10,000 Germans, who are chiefly employed in digging gold, and who send large quantities yearly to Para, on the coast, for exportation to Europe.

The fifteenth century having closed with the two greatest geographical events of modern times, the discovery of the New World, and the circumnavigation of the African continent, the sixteenth century beheld the extension and success of European enterprise in distant seas. The Pacific Ocean, which Magellan had opened up to the fleets of Christendom, was navigated and explored by daring mariners. Soarez discovered the Maldive

Islands; another Portuguese, the Moluccas or Spice Islands; Villalobos, a group now supposed to make part of the Philippine Islands; Juan Fernandez, the small island that bears his name, and celebrated as the foundation of the history of "Robinson Crusoe." To the latter, also, has been ascribed the discovery of New Zealand. In 1567 Alvaro de Mendana first landed on the Solomon Isles, the isle of Santa Cruz, and others. Nearly thirty years later the same navigator discovered the Marquesas Islands, and the archipelago which was afterwards called by Carteret Queen Charlotte's Islands. Francis Drake; the Dutchman Van Noort; Quiros, who discovered Tahiti, and the Archipelago of the New Hebrides (the Great Cyclades of Bougainville); Torres, who discovered New Guinea, and the strait which separates this large island from Australia-all began to clear up the navigation of the Pacific Ocean. In the interval, Sebald de Weert, fellow-navigator with Van Noort, had recognised the Malouines, or Falkland Islands, discovered by John Davis. Two of his countrymen, Lemaire and Schouten, discovered, in 1615, part of the island of Tierra del Fuego, and Cape Horn, which forms the southern extremity of the American continent. A new passage was thenceforward open to navigators bound for the Pacific Ocean, who were desirous of avoiding the difficulties and storms which were to be dreaded in the Strait of Magellan. The honour of having first landed on New Holland, now called Australia, is generally attributed to Dirk Hartog, who attached to the part of this continent, which he had discovered, the name of the vessel he commanded, by calling it Endracht's Land. Zeachen, in 1618; Edels, in 1619; De Nuyts, in 1627; and after these De Witt, Carpenter, and Pelsart completed this grand discovery.

It is not positively known whether the Spanish and the Portuguese had not visited the coasts of Australia nearly a century before the Dutch, as two chartographical documents of that date would lead us to believe. Neither is it more certain that the Portuguese Menezes and the Spaniard Saavedra had discovered New Guinea, the one in 1527, and the other in the following year. The memorable voyage of Abel Tasman produced rapid and striking progress in the geography of Oceania, or Australasia and Polynesia. This able navigator, sailing from Batavia in 1642, discovered Van Diemen's Land, now called, after its discoverer, Tasmania. The circumnavigation of Australia was then completed, and the assurance was gained that this continent did not extend indefinitely towards the south pole. Shortly after, the expedition landed on New Zealand; then it discovered the Friendly Islands, and that of Tongataboo. Lastly, after a successful expedition of nine months, at the end of which it visited New Guinea, and discovered several islands to the north of it and of the island of New Britain, the Dutch refitted their vessels in the port of Batavia, the capital of Java. It was only in 1665 that the name of Nova Hollandia, or New Holland, was given to the western part of Australia by a decree of the States-General of the parent country.

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By the statements and explanations given in our last lesson, you are taught that in both nouns and adjectives, case, number, and gender are in Latin indicated by divers terminations. It is an easy inference that if a change is made to turn a singular noun into a plural form, a corresponding change must be made in the adjective which accompanies it; that is to say, if the noun is plural, the adjective must be plural; if the noun is singular, the adjective must be singular: thus, bonus puer becomes in the

plural boni pueri. In the ordinary phraseology of Latin grammars, this correspondence in form between the noun and the adjective is called concord. Here you are to consider the first concord to require that the noun and adjective should agree in number, that is, both must in form be either singular or plural, and not one singular while the other is plural. A second concord requires the noun and the adjective to be in the same gender, so that if you have to say good bridegroom, you use the words, bonus sponsus, but if you wish to speak of a good bride, you change the us into a, and say bona sponsa. A third concord is found in agreement in case between the adjective and noun, so that if the noun is in the nominative case, the adjective must be in the nominative case; if the noun is in the objective or accusative case, in the same case must the adjective be. Putting these three instances of concord or agreement together, we say that

Adjectives must agree with their substantives in GENDER, NUM BER, and CASE.

This general statement we call a rule; and all such general statements or rules you should commit to memory. Case, you see, is denoted by a change at the end of a noun or adjective. In our English nouns we have something of a similar nature. In the words, father's book, father's is in what is called the possessive case. The condition of the noun is called the pos. sessive case, because possession is thereby signified. But why is it called case? Case is a Latin term, signifying fall. And as the different terminations are gone down successively, as you will shortly learn by experience-gone down or declined one after the other, on the part of the boys who learnt grammar in the schools-so were those terminations called cases, or successive falls, that is, falls of the voice. The cases then in Latin are the changes which the noun undergoes conformably to variations in the meaning. Thus, as in English father becomes father's when used with book, as father's book, so in Latin, pater (father) becomes patris, when used in dependence on liber, book. Notice that I say, "when used in dependence;" for the possessive (or genitive) case denotes connection or dependence. In father's book, the form father's is necessitated by the dependence of the word on book. Such dependence is denoted in the diction of Latin grammars by the word government: thus, we should say that patris was governed in the genitive case by the word liber. Here again arises a general statement or rule; namely, that

One noun governs another in the genitive case.

This rule simply means that of two nouns which are con nected with each other by a relation of dependence, the noun which is dependent on the other noun must be put in the genitive (or possessive) case.

In Latin there are six cases: 1, the nominative; 2, the genitive; 3, the dative; 4, the accusative; 5, the vocative; 6, the ablative. These six cases are different forms of the noun, whereby are indicated differences of meaning. The nominative corresponds to the subject, and the accusative corresponds to the object, of a proposition. You may find the nominative by asking the question who? or what? You may find the accusative by asking the question whom? or what? You may ascertain the genitive by asking the question whose? You may ascertain the dative by asking the question for whom? or for what? You may ascertain the ablative by asking the question by whom? or by what? The vocative is preceded by the interjection 0! as O father! and is employed in addresses or invocations. strictness of speech the nominative can hardly be termed a case, because as the nouns are commonly given in dictionaries, it seems to have no fall or case. The nominative, however, is a case, for it is not the primitive state of the noun. The primi tive state of the noun, as the primitive state of the verb, is found in the stem. Thus, the stem or form on which the cases of pater are formed is patr: by inserting e, the stem patr be comes pater, the nominative case.

In

Requesting you to call these changes in the terminations of nouns and adjectives case-endings, I add that these case-endings are to be termed the Latin signs of the cases. For these Latin signs there are corresponding English signs; the English signs give (in part) the meaning of the Latin signs. Thus, of is the English sign and meaning of the Latin genitive i; to or for is the English sign and meaning of the Latin dative o; by, with, or from, is the English sign and meaning of the ablative o. Now as in Latin the o of the dative is not in form distinguished

from the o of the ablative case, some difficulty arises in reading Latin. This difficulty grows less by practice, and eventually disappears, for the sense points out in each instance whether the dative or the ablative case is the case intended by the author. Something similar exists in English; for since, as I have shown you previously, the nominative and the objective, or the subject and the object, are in our nouns the same in form, we learn only by the sense which of the two is meant.

With us, however, there is no difficulty, because the sense is determined by the position, for in English, in general, the subject precedes, the object follows, the verb. Inasmuch, however, as the subject in English undergoes no change in becoming the object, and inasmuch as no preposition goes before either subject or object, so have we no natural English sign for the Latin nominative or the Latin accusative, and consequently are forced to indicate the former by the word subject, and the latter by the word object. Finally, the English sign of the vocative is ; the corresponding Latin sign is in some nouns e, in others the form in the vocative is the same as the form in the nominative, Having given these explanations, I place under your eye at once the case-endings of a noun in Latin, with the corresponding English signs:

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Ablative

03

મેં

is

ENGLISH
SIGNS.

(subject)
of
to or for
(object)

by, with, or from by, with, or from. You thus see that in Latin the case-endings of the singular are different from the case-endings of the plural. You also see that the English signs are the same in both singular and plural. For the sake of comparison, we commonly use a contraction for the names of the cases; thus, N. or Nom. for nominative, G. or Gen. for genitive, and so on with the rest. The caseendings which I have just set before you are not the caseendings of all the Latin nouns. I have given these because they are the most distinct. Others, however, must not be omitted. I will exhibit them to you first in succession, and then the whole combined in one view. In order to do so, I must set before you what are called the declensions. The declensions, or methods in which the falls of the cases take place, are five in number. To express the same thing differently, in order to assist you in understanding what I mean, I add that all the Latin nouns have by grammarians been arranged into fire classes. In this classification regard has been had to the termiration of the genitive case singular. Thus, in the first declen sion the genitive case of the singular number ends in c diphthong, pronounced like our ee; in the second declension the genitive ends in i; in the third, in is; in the fourth, in us: in the fifth, in ei, pronounced e-i. These endings are termed the signs of the declensions, and may be thus presented :Declensions

1st

2nd
R

3rd
is

4th ús

5th
ei

OUR HOLIDAY.-V.

GYMNASTICS.-III.

JUMPING AND LEAPING.

THESE exercises, in their various forms, constitute an important
to many, really require skill and practice for the attainment of
feature in gymnastic pursuits; and, simple as they may appear
a tolerable degree of proficiency, without injury to the physical
which comparative ease and safety may be secured, and it will
powers. There is a method in the way of doing all things, by
the practice of the learner.
be our object to explain what is the best method in this case for

be necessary to go through certain preparatory exercises, which
1. Before the attempt is made to accomplish any feats, it will
will accustom you to the proper movements, and give the
required degree of elasticity to the limbs.
exercises by the upward jump from the ground, which is to be
Begin all jumping
erect
performed in the following manner: Stand in an
forward and rise slightly upon the toes; then spring upward to
position, with the arms hanging downward; bend the knees
a moderate height, and alight upon the balls of the feet-not
upon the heels, for this will give a concussion to the joints;
also bend the knees slightly on coming down, which will help to
break the force of the shock. In practising all jumping exer-
cises the learner should remember these fundamental prin-
ciples.

The

In the foregoing exercise the arms may either be kept straight to the body, or with the hands resting on the hips, or, thirdly, thrown forward and upward when the jump is taken. learner will do well to practise each of these ways in turn; the last will be useful in giving additional impetus when the height or distance of the jump is an object.

2. Make the same jump, but, in the descent, face to the right; the next time, face to the left; and the next, turn the body completely round when in the act of jumping, so as to come to the ground with the face turned in the opposite direction to that in which it had been before making the jump.

3. In taking the jump, stretch the legs out sideways on rising from the ground, and extend the arms high above the head. 4. Another useful jump to practise is that shown in our first illustration (Fig. 9). Bring the feet back to their original position while in the air, and extend the arms at the same time. It will require some dexterity to enable the learner to cross and to uncross the legs before descending, so as to bring the feet back to the ground with the heels touching, but this will come in due time with regular practice.

Other jumps of a similar nature to the foregoing may be practised. To exhaust the list of such variations would require a special paper, but these will suggest others.

We have touched at present only on jumping movements, designed to practise the muscles, which will be employed in exercises of a higher order. We pass on now to these, which may more properly be called leaping.

THE HIGH LEAP.

Signs The sign of the fourth declension has a circumflex accent (A) over it, in order to distinguish it from other cases, namely, the nominative us, and the accusative us. In the same way, over the ablative case of the first declension, we put a circumflex accent thus, d, as in femind-by, with, or from a female-ground at from six to eight feet from each other. Two movable in order to distinguish the ablative case or form from the nominative femina, a female. You may here be informed that adjectives are for the most part declined--that is, form their cases in the same manner as the nouns which correspond with them in form; for instance, bonus, ending in us, is declined like dominus, which also ends in us; and bona, ending in a, is declined like femina, which also ends in a.

A preliminary remark must be made respecting the article. The Latin language is without an article. Neither the definite article the, nor the indefinite article an, is found in Latin. Consequently, we cannot from the form tell whether femina should be translated female, a female, or the female. În this particular there is, in construing or translating from the Latin, no other guide than the sense as it may be gathered from the general import of the sentence or the narrative: and you will also now be aware that female, a female, and the female, are equally to be put into Latin by femina.

This should be practised with the aid of a leaping-stand (seo Fig. 10). It consists of two poles, about six or seven feet high, and perforated with holes from one to two inches apart; these holes commencing about a foot and a half from the bottom, and continuing upward to the top, or near it. The poles are fixed in the pegs are inserted into the holes at the desired height for the leap, and across these pegs a rope is then stretched, the rope being kept in position by the weight of a small sand-bag at each end; or a stick may be used instead of the rope to rest upon the pegs, but the rope is preferable for the beginner. While it fixes the height as well as any solid object would do so, it gives way at once to the slightest touch of the fect in passing over, and thus saves the leaper from a heavy fall, should he fail to clear the object. A piece of coloured cloth may be placed over the centre of the rope, more particularly to mark the spot over which the leap is to be made, as well as to show, by its displacement or otherwise, whether the object has been grazed in the passage over it.

Now, with this apparatus before you, commence leaping over a height which you can accomplish with ease; and then gradually raise the pegs and the rope from hole to hole, as y increase in power and dexterity.

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Deap that the cops starting-point, the spot on winch the poue is rested before leapmr. and the position which is attained by the ep, should be in a straight line with each other.

In performing kager leaps, when some degree of faminarty with the use of the pole is secured, it is desirable to place the hands nearer to each other than is shown in these engravings; the precise height at which the pole With a should be grasped depending on the leap to be performed, and the amount of assistance required from the pole by the heaper.

* * q win WA ya wa May be my much grond. In a JNE WA Westeak, 16 Kate, togus or ten foot, in very gun.

La Đỗ warraḥ, SWA$ya pazne byk or six feet more may be accom 1 wam, unde Artemy,

Aa, Arnegended, long may ve practiued with advantage, but a kay from w brighid, cả me That mix feet should not be attempted Ina perkenant, may soompich ten or tweire In thix, ma in all (Aher leaps, remember the to slight on the hails of the feet, and to bend the knee om slighting, to break the force of concussion with the

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High leaps with the pole should be practised with great care, and only in successive gradations from a point that may be leaped by the beginner with ease. They should not be tried, indeed, until the learner is familiar with the use of the pole in the long leap, and has acquired confidence in his own power to employ the implement with advantage.

In the high leaps it is necessary that the pole should be held with both hands higher than the rope or bar it is intended to leap over; and at the moment when the body is passing over the rope, the hold upon the pole must be relinquished, and the pole pushed backward by a slight movement of the uppermost hand, so that it may not fall upon the leaper. A failure of nerve or confidence in passing over the rope will do more than anything else to prevent success in the movement. It is especially needful in these leaps to bend the knees on reaching the ground, as before explained.

LESSONS IN MUSIC.-III.

In order to fix in the memory yet more distinctly the real structure of the scale, it may be well to notice that it is divisible into two similar sets of four notes, each set including two tones, crowned by a tonule. These sets of four notes have been called TETRACHORDS. If the replicate of the key-note is ineluded, you will have DоH, RAY, ME, FAH for the first tetrachord, and SOH, LA, TE, DOH' for the second. These are called disjunct tetrachords, because the tone between FAH and Soн separates them. If the key-note is made the highest note of the one and the lowest of the other tetrachord, SOH, LAH, TE, Doн, will form the first, and DOH (repeated), RAY, ME, FAH, the second. These are called the conjunct tetrachords, because they are joined in the key-note. Take coins or counters to represent the notes, and arrange them on the table, first with the disjunct, and then with the conjunct tetrachords

thus:

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Learn to do this from memory, and, having done it, to name the notes you have arranged. Some scale-makers, beginning upon RAY and ascending to the upper RAY', suppose they have got hold of a different scale, because the tonules (semi-tones) are between the second and third and sixth and seventh notes from RAY, while they were between the third and fourth and seventh and eighth from DOH! In the same way, they begin upon ME, and ascending to the upper ME', suppose they have discovered another new scale, with its tonules differently placed! And so on, making every note of the scale the beginning of what they strangely fancy to be a new scale! You will be saved from this delusion by simply observing that, whatever note you begin on, the tonules are divided by two tones on the one hand, and by three on the other. This will best appear by your placing the notes in the form of a circle, thus :

FAH * ME*

RAY*

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DOH *

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Our pupil will not blame us for having so long drawn his attention to this foundation scale of all music, when he comes to see the importance in his after progress of thus thoroughly comprehending its structure. He will now be prepared to understand the Modulator, or pointing board for teaching tunes." The middle column represents the seven notes of the Ecale in their proper order and at their proper distances. The replicates (octave notes) are added, both above and below, with the figures attached to them as already described. It will be Been that, with the exception of the middle octave (eight notes), the initial letters of the sol-fa syllables alone are used. The side columns (which are but repetitions of the same thing at different heights in pitch) and the additional notes given in these columns, ramely, TA, pronounced taw, and FE, need not be attended to at present. They are only printed here for the sake of completeness. The scale is sometimes called the " common mode" (the common mode in which notes are arranged for a tune), and the word modulate means properly to sing "in mode," or, in other words, to sing correctly "in tune." The uses of the modulator are the following:

-

1. It supplies the learner with a perfect pictorial representation of the notes he is singing, and thus enables him, as he sings and "points," to measure to the eye the exact intervals which the voice is taking. This cannot be done on the staff of five lines, for there is nothing there to indicate pictorially the place of the tonules (semi-tones) and it is not easy for the

VOL. I.

learner to know at all times from that staff what part of the scale he is in-a knowledge which every true singer should carry with him, and which the learner cannot escape possessing if he faithfully and constantly uses the modulator. Let him steadily do this for the next twenty or thirty singing lessons, and he will find that the modulator has become a ready interpreter of the "staff," and a clear, sure light, guiding him through all the maze of flats and sharps, and clefs and keys, and whatever other difficulties may be crowded upon it.

SIMPLE MODULATOR,

OR POINTING BOARD FOR TEACHING TUNES.

d1

f1

t

m1

1

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2. It gives to the learner a simple and uniform "language of interval," for DOH being always the key-note, the intervals remain always the same, to whatever pitch the scale may be raised or lowered. Thus, the tonules are always between ME FAH, and TE DOн, and the pupil is so accustomed to sing those syllables to that interval, that he world find it difficult to sing them wrongly. This constant use of the syllables in connection always with the same intervals, helps the mind to recall those intervals with great ease. We all acknowledge the power of this mental association of syllable and interval. When we wish to remember some favourite tune, for instance, how frequently do we ask ourselves in aid of memory, "What are the words we usually sing it to ?" and immediately that we think of the words we remember the tune. How is this? It is plain that the first syllables of the hymn or song had so often co-existed in our minds along with the first intervals of the tune, that the one had gained a power to suggest the other. This power of "association," proved to be occasionally so useful, we systematise and make of constant use. Several persons, recently made acquainted with this method of teaching to sing, have written to us in this manner:-"I was reckoned a very fair sight-singer before I became acquainted with this method, but I frequently, in preparing for our choral meetings, met with passages which I could not conquer without the help of an instrument. I now, however, simply trace out such passages on the modulator, translate them into this accurate and unchanging language of interval, and then it becomes really difficult to sing them wrongly."

LAH

r

ne

SOH d

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3. It facilitates the practice of teaching by pattern. This is of great importance. The teacher sings, softly and distinctly, a short phrase of the tune to be taught. To this vocal pattern the pupils so listen that they may be able to imitate immediately afterwards. There are two mental processes in learning to sing a note. The first is an effort (if we may so speak) of perception in seeking to appreciate clearly the note to be imitated. The second is an effort of will, commanding the organs of voice to reproduce the notes thus clearly perceived. The "pattern cultivates each of these distinctly. It stimulates the pupil to a strong mental effort in endeavouring to bring the ear and the voice to do the mind's bidding. In this mental effort alone consists the real work of learning to sing. That method is the best, therefore, which requires the most of it. One hour's training of this kind is far more effective than five spent in singing with a leader. The teacher also, not singing with his pupils, is better able to criticise and patiently correct their

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