Every syllogism contains two premises and a conclusion; or a major and minor proposition and a consequence. Major. - Example of a Syllogism: Minor. God is our Creator; Consequence. Therefore God ought to be worshipped. 411. An Argument is a series of syllogisms; and, although arguments do not retain their syllogistic form in ordinary discourse, yet all arguments may be reduced to syllogisms; and errors or sophisms may thus be detected. 412. Formerly, Logic, or the art of reasoning, was almost the sole business of a university-education; but it is now in some degree superseded, by the practice of reasoning in the study of mathematics, by the various branches of philosophy, and by the perusal of the classic authors. Obs. The great master of philosophy, ARISTOTLE, divided all science into THEOREMS formed of SYLLOGISMS, which Syllogisms were composed of PROPOSITIONS, which Propositions were formed of TERMS; which Terms were WORDS OF SIGNS of our IDEAS OF THINGS. He then considered all THINGS, with reference to their TEN CATEGORIES, or Predicaments; as Substance, Quality, Quantity, Relation, Action, Passiveness, When, Where, Position, and Habit. XVII. Rhetoric. 413. Rhetoric teaches us to affect the passions by suitable illustrations and imagery; and to arrange our arguments to the best advantage, so as to make the deepest impression on the feelings and judgment of those we address. 414. The following are the chief figures of speech. a. Simile, or comparison, is that figure by which we compare one thing with another for the sake of illustration. b. Metaphor, is a comparison expressed without the signs of comparison; as, when we say of a minister, that he is the pillar of the state, we speak in metaphor; and when we say, that Charles the twelfth was the lion of the north, we speak metaphorically. c. Allegory, is a continuation of several metaphors. so connected as to form a kind of parable or fable; as, in describing the people of Israel under the image of a vine. d. Irony, is a figure in which we urge one thing, and mean the contrary, in order to give effect to our meaning; as, in describing a notorious cheat, we say, ironically, A mighty honest man, truly! e. Hyperbole, gives us the highest idea of an object, and magnifies it beyond its natural dimensions; as, Achilles was swifter than a stag. f. Antithesis, is the contrast or opposition of two objects in a sentence; as, If you seek to make a man rich, study not so much to increase his stores, as to diminish his desires. g. Climax, or Gradation, is a figure by which we rise from one circumstance to another, till our idea is raised to the highest. h. Personification, is a figure by which we attribute life and the use of reason to inanimate objects and irrational creatures. i. Apostrophe, is a figure by which we address absent persons, or inanimate objects which we personify. k. Interrogation, is a figure which, by asking a question, gives ardour and energy to our dis course. 1. Exclamation, is a figure that expresses some strong emotion of the mind, and is generally followed by a note of admiration. 415. Rhetorical disposition and arrangement is the placing of the arguments, or the parts of a discourse, oration, or composition, in the most suitable and impressive order. The parts of a discourse are sometimes five and sometimes six; viz. the Exordium, the Narration, the Proposition, the Confirmation, the Refutation, and the Peroration. a. In the Exordium, or beginning of a discourse, the writer or speaker gives some intimation of his subject, and solicits favour and attention. b. The Narration is a brief recital of the facts connected with the case from the beginning to the end. c. In the Proposition, is given the true state of the question; specifying the points maintained, and those in which the writer or speaker differs from the adversary. d. The Confirmation assembles all the proofs and arguments which can be adduced. e. In the Refutation, the writer or speaker answers the arguments and objections of his oppo nent. f. In the Peroration, he sums up the strong and principal arguments, and endeavours to excite the passions in his favour. 416. A distinct and audible delivery is essential to a good orator. The first rule is, to open the mouth sufficiently and not to mumble or mutter the words. The second is, to pronounce distinctly every letter and syllable without hurry. And the third is, to fill the room with the voice, so that the most distant part of the auditory may hear. 417. In regard to gesture, that which is natural is the best, provided it is not awkward and offensive. The head should be held up, and the speaker should look those he is addressing in the face. His action should be easy, and should keep pace with his voice and the nature of his discourse. He should also avoid contortions and vulgar grimaces; ease in delivery, being the chief grace of oratory. XVIII. Of Vegetable Nature. 418. Every substance known to man is divisible into three kingdoms, the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. Linnæus thus distinguishes these kingdoms: "Stones grow ;-vegetables grow and live-and animals grow, live, and feel." Obs-For the Mineral Kingdom, see chapter XX. 419. The existence of all vegetables may be regarded as mechanical, or as similar to that of an animal when asleep, during which time his functions proceed without consciousness. The mechanism of plants is, however, most wonderful; and bespeaks the contrivance of an all-wise and all-powerful Creator. 420. A seed, which is thrown into the earth by the husbandman, is similar in its construction to the egg of an animal. The earth acts upon it, by means as inexplicable to man, as that by which the sitting of an hen on an egg converts it into a chicken, 421. In a few days, the seed opens, and there issues a green plant, with a number of fibrous threads. Whatever was the position of the seed, the green sprout struggies through the soil upward into the air; and the fibrous shoots strike downward into the ground; and there imbibe, transmit, or pump up, the moisture, as nourishment to the plant. 422. Nothing is more wonderful than the means of nature for the preservation of seeds; and the contrivances by which they are distributed. Some seeds are provided with downy wings, as the dandelion, and are impelled by the winds; others are swallowed by animals, and voided again in distant places, being preserved by their coverings, till excited into germination, by the heat of the sun's rays in the following spring. 423. Linnæus divided all plants into 24 classes, and 121 orders; and these into genera, and species, with varieties of the species without number. Each has its peculiar habitation; and each adapts the nutriment derived from the same earth, so differently, that, by an unknown agency, are produced all the degrees of flavour, odour, poison, and nutriment, which we find in various plants. Each tree, each plant, from all its branching roots, |