rived from the Greek, French, Italian, and German languages.

391. Grammar, in a limited sense, is the art which teaches the construction of phrases and sentences; but, in an extended sense, it embraces the whole science of language.

The study of language is properly divided into the seven following branches:-Orthoëpy, Orthograpy, Accidence, Syntax, Prosody, Rhetoric, and Composition.

392. Orthoepy consists of rules for pronouncing etters and syllables according to the established

usage.

Orthography is the art of writing words with the proper and necessary letters.

The Accidence treats of the modification of the different kinds of words, called parts of speech. Syntax furnishes the rules for the proper construction and just disposition of words in a sen

tence.

393. Prosody teaches the right of accentuation of syllables; and the different measures of verses. Rhetoric enables us to affect or convince those whom we address in speaking or in writing.

Composition is the art of arranging our thoughts with precision and elegance; and is, consequently, the object and end of the study of language.

394. The nine kinds of words, or nine parts of speech, compose all languages; and there are in the English language about 20,500 nouns, 40 pronouns, 9,200 adnouns, or adjectives, 8,000 verbs, 2,600 adverbs, 69 prepositions, 19 conjunctions, 68 interjections, and 2 articles ;-in all about forty thousand words.

395. After having acquired a stock of words by reading and copying the best authors, and mix ing in good company, we should learn to arrange and combine them in a sentence with elegance; and in such manner, as exactly to express the meaning we intend to convey, and no other than that sense; a power of writing which is called perspicuity.

396. The great rule for the attainment of the art of composition, is to conceive, ourselves, that sentiment, which we purpose to convey to others, by previously reflecting upon it: as it is impossible to express clearly, to others, what we do not well understand ourselves.

397. We should never desire to express too many ideas in one sentence; but dispatch them one after another in their proper order; and confine ourselves to simple and short sentences till we have acquired facility in the management of them.

Obs. The best exercise in writing and speaking is to read a short story, and then write or speak it in our own phraseology. Such an exercise daily continued for some months, would teach the several arts of spelling, writing, and speaking, at the same time.

398. We should avoid all quaint phrases, cant words, vulgar proverbs, and foreign idioms; and make our choice from the phraseology of the Old or New Testaments, or the works of Addison or Shakspeare; and avoid the latinized phraseology of Johnson, and the Gallic phraseology of some other modern writers.

Obs.-Happily, the translation of the Scriptures has served to preserve our language; or it would have been lost amidst the barbarous affectations of Johnson and his

followers. We have no where such variety of beautiful and affecting language, as in the Old and New Testaments. These will, I hope, preserve our language from the corruptions and innovations daily making in it, by those who prefer sound to sense.

399. To speak or write our ideas in an able and persuasive manner, we ought to possess ourselves of various knowledge: to read the best books on all subjects; to suffer no hour to pass without making some improvement; and think, talk, and write ourselves on subjects, on which we have perused the opinion of others.

400. We should commit to memory the terms and leading facts of the various Arts and Sciences; and frequently reduce to writing, striking facts or important sentiments which we meet with in reading. We should compare one author with another on the same subject; and frequently converse with others, on any points in which authors do not satisfy our curiosity.

Obs-Dr. Irving's Elements of Composition is a library for young persons; and the study of it should follow that of every grammar. Adair's Questions render it practical for schools.

XVI. Logic.

401. Logic, (which notwithstanding its importance, is too much neglected,) is the science of correct thinking. Logicians give five general rules, by which to assist their views in thinking, writing, and speaking on all subjects.

As these rules are of great and constant use, I have copied them from my own English Grammar :—

a. Conceive of things clearly and distinctly, in their own natures.

Obs. That is, we should acquire a clear and distinct conception of things as they are in their own nature;

dent axioms; as that the whole is greater than a part, or, every effect is produced by some cause. The evidence of reason, founded on clear and indubitable deductions from well-founded premises and doctrines.

And the evidence of faith, deduced from the testimony of others.

406. Demonstrations are a succession of conneeted Propositions, beginning with self-evident truths and advancing to remoter ones.

A demonstration a priori, is when the effect is proved by referring to the cause.

A demonstration a posteriori, is when the cause is inferred from the effects.

Obs-Corollaries are self-evident inferences from established propositions.

407. Sophistry is false reasoning, founded on false premises, or an ambiguity of terms.

Obs. As most of the evils which exist in society grow out of sophistry, no art is more important than that which enables us to detect or expose it. The crimes of courts and wicked ministers usually escape punishment, from the effects of sophistry; and there would be few or no wars, if sophistry did not triumph in the statements of the parties.

A Sophism of composition, is when we infer that of any thing in an aggregate or compounded sense, which is true only in a divided sense.

A Sophism of division, is when we infer any thing in a divided sense, which is true only in a compounded sense.

A Sophism of equivocation, is when we use words of an ambiguous or doubled sense, and draw inferences in one sense, of which the proposition is capable only in the other.

408. A petitio principii, or begging the ques

tion, is the supposition of what is not granted, or a supposed proof, by stating the question in other words.

The reductio ad absurdum, is when the truth of a proposition is proved by shewing the absurdity of a contrary supposition.

409. Induction consists in distributing a general idea into its species, and ascribing to the whole the property found in the species.

A false induction is when general deductions are made from too limited a number of experiments or facts.

The fallacia accidentis, is when we draw inferences in regard to the nature of a thing from circumstances only temporary or accidental.

The ignorantia elenchi, is a mistake of the question, or when one thing is proved instead of another.

Analogy is an argument in which, from corresponding causes, are deduced corresponding ef fects.

Obs. The sources of errors are, (1.) The want of diligence in investigation. (2.) Judging of things by their external appearances only. (3.) Not separating the good and bad qualities that pervade the same thing, but forming a hasty judgment. (4) Comparing things with our own situation in life; or as they happen to affect us. (5) Associating an idea with something disagreeable, or the contrary. (6.) Prejudices formed in our infancy. (7.) Giving credit to the assertions or misrepresentations of others, without inquiring into their motives, as in news-writers and reviewers; and (8.) Submitting to the force and influence of custom and fashion.

410. A syllogism is a sentence made up of three propositions, so disposed, as that the last is necessarily inferred from those that precede it.