iams has a record of which to be proud; but, of the sixteen institutions founded between 1776 and 1796, the present conditions of five only, hint at even passable thrift. The current average attendance of the others falls below eighty, with a present aggregate endowment of less than three million dollars.

This was a time of general expansion. More or less unsettled, society was necessarily less given to formal and prescribed culture, but devoted to organization and attempts at practical readjustments.

Harvard now first assumed the name of university; for, though there had been collateral professorships, these were maintained by assessments upon students, were not co-ordinated into departments, and left the institution only an academic school of art. Signs of catholicity also appear, in that students were no longer required to attend the divinity lectures, except they were preparing for the ministry. The

democratic tendencies of the time were shown in many ways. Students from about the beginning of the Revolution ✓ (1770 in Yale) were catalogued alphabetically, and not as previously by the social rank of their families. Literary societies, voluntary associations for social and general culture, were multiplied; and at William and Mary College was formed (1776) the first Greek fraternity in this country -the Phi Beta Kappa-the parent of both secret and open college fraternity organizations in America.*

New interests were arising. The New England colonial conflict had been a theological one. The opposition and divergence of sects-freedom from which, in Virginia, had constituted, in the estimation of President Blair, one of that colony's commending social features-were rapidly being obscured, in the greater immediate civil and political interests which all the colonies shared in common. Less importance was attached to the formal subscription to creeds; re

*For a sketch of this organization, its origin, and occasion, see Quincy's "Harvard University," vol. ii, p. 397.

ligious tests were less frequent and insistent. William and Mary elected a lay chancellor ; Yale, also, though nominally on a Congregational foundation, received aid (1792) from the State, and gave place in her corporation to State representatives.

The college, once an appendage to the Church, was seen, in view of imminent State dangers, to have an equal value to the Commonwealth. First encouraged because it provided an educated ministry, there was coming to be recognized an opinion, despite the deficiencies in culture, that education is something more that it has a value in itself; that schools might well be maintained apart from the Church as an organization, and in no way lessen their usefulness. Of the four colleges established during the war, two were nonsectarian, as were three fourths of the sixteen colleges founded in the twenty years after 1776.

Bibliography.

The "New England Academies," by Rev. Charles Hammond; the "Old Academies," "New-Englander," January, 1885; "Academies in New England" (1830), “American Quarterly Register," vol. ii, p. 131, and vol. iii, p. 288; the "Relation of Academies to Colleges," "Congregational Review," vol. ii, p. 50, and "Putnam's Magazine," vol. ii, p. 169. The colleges of the period are well represented in “A History of Harvard University, 1636-1776," by Benjamin Peirce; a "History of the College of New Jersey," by J. Maclean; an "Historical Sketch of Columbia College,” 1754–1876, by J. Van Amringe; "History of the University of Pennsylvania," by T. H. Montgomery; the "Early History of Brown University," by R. A. Guild (1864); the "First Half-Century of Dartmouth College," by N. Crosby (1769-1820); and "Descriptive Analysis of the Society System in Colleges of the United States," by W. J. Baird

THE transition from a colonial dependence to national independence was a costly one. The States came out of the contest bankrupt financially; disorganized in industries; a Government without precedent; the real War of Independence yet to fight, and the civilized world looking on to see the failure. Not three decades had passed from the inauguration of Washington when the final conflict was over. The War of 1812 was fought, a substantial independence achieved; and the States, no longer engrossed with conflicting and unsettled foreign interests, turned their attention to economic and industrial questions at home. Trade began to revive; commerce had found a way; social and governmental forces were active and planning. The period was one of great change and much growth.

In four decades population had trebled. The six cities of 1790 had grown to twenty-six in 1830; then, one thirtieth of the entire population, they were now one sixteenth. The acquisition of territory had been enormous. The scarcely more than eight hundred thousand square miles of 1783 had expanded to upward of two million square miles in 1819, or

five times the total area of the original thirteen States. The increase alone was equal to one hundred and fifty-eight States such as Massachusetts. The Mississippi was open to American commerce its full length, leading to a rapid extension of settlements in the Southwest. It was the era of new States. Eleven had been added to the first thirteen. Trade was opened with the West Indies. In the census of 1820, statistics began to be taken concerning manufacturing interests. Appropriations were made by Congress, as well as by several of the States, for internal improvements, in the year 1816 three hundred and fifty thousand dollars being set aside by congressional act for this purpose. Virginia, Delaware, and Maryland established "improvement funds." Manufacturing associations and trade leagues were organized in Pennsylvania and North Carolina. Congress voted one hundred thousand dollars annual appropriation to the navy. A system of coast defense was projected, and the pre-emption land act passed. The year 1830 opened upon twenty-five canals, including the great Erie, with an aggregate length of sixteen hundred miles; while, five years later, one thousand miles of railroad had grown from the Quincy (Mass.) four-mile granite line of 1826.

Already the slavery question was forcing itself upon the public mind, leading directly to the founding of the American Colonization, and other manumission societies, and endless political readjustments. Academies of science, philosophy, and history, the "North American Review,” in Boston, and thirty colleges, took their start in this period. It was in these years when most of our educational systems originated or began their reorganization. Professorships of science, law, medicine, and the modern languages were added to the existing faculties. In place of the thirty-five newspapers of 1775, there were three hundred and twentythree in 1810, and one thousand two decades later. It was a period of great awakening and great activity. In the atmosphere of the Revolution were born and reared statesmen and soldiers; not less did the years following give scholars