thirty specialties and twenty rates of pay from 16 cents to 50 cents an hour. The 50-cent man is restricted to using the knife on the most delicate parts of the hide (floorman) or to using the axe in splitting the back-bone (splitter); and wherever a less skilled man can be slipped in at 18 cents, 181⁄2 cents, 20 cents, 222 cents, 24 cents, and so on, a place is made for him and an occupation mapped out. In working on the hide alone there are nine positions at eight different rates of pay. A 20-cent man pulls off the tail, a 221⁄2-cent man pounds off another part where the hide separates readily, and the knife of the 40-cent man cuts a different texture and has a different 'feel' from that of the 50-cent man. Skill has become specialized to fit the anatomy."

Division of labor is not confined to manufacturing and commerce. It has entered the professions. Not long ago the high-school teacher was supposed to be able to teach Latin, French, and mathematics as chief subjects and devote any spare time to history and English. Now every good high school has teachers who are specialists. In medicine, dentistry, and law a similar development of specialists has occurred.

Advantages of the Division of Labor.-Division of labor has several advantages. In the first place practice in doing one thing produces great skill. To one watching a girl packing candy in a large candy factory, the skill and rapidity of motion which she shows seems wonderful, but there is nothing remarkable about it. It is the result of long practice. Then there is much time saved that would be lost in passing from one sort of work to another. Also machinery is fully utilized, and invention stimulated, be

cause, as Adam Smith said: "Men are much more likely to discover easier and readier methods of obtaining any object, when the whole attention of their minds is directed to that single object, than when it is dissipated among a great variety of things." Many inventions have been made by common laborers, who have found new methods of doing some part of their work. Through the division of labor many more things can be produced by the same number of men and the cost of making goods is therefore reduced.

Disadvantages. It is often maintained that division of labor takes away the pride which a working man might have in his product. A man might enjoy making a pair of shoes, but what intellectual stimulus can come from running a machine which stamps eyelets? The deadly monotony of a single operation repeated all day long is also urged as a disadvantage. However, division of labor has come to stay and to grow in importance. With an eight-hour working-day and increased time and opportunity for education and recreation, the alleged disadvantages seem trivial as compared to the advantages.

The Geographical Division of Occupation.-A geographical division of occupation in the United States is noticeable. The growing of spring wheat is the leading industry of Minnesota and the Dakotas; corn is the great crop of Illinois, Kansas, and the other states of the "corn belt"; cotton is produced in the Gulf States; small fruits are grown in central New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and California; and tobacco is grown in Virginia, Kentucky, and the Carolinas.

Collars and cuffs are made more largely in Troy than elsewhere; more than half the gloves manufactured in this

country are produced in the adjoining cities of Gloversville and Johnstown, New York; Paterson, New Jersey, specializes in silk; East Liverpool, Ohio, and Trenton, New Jersey, are noted for their potteries; Brockton, Massachusetts, is a centre of boot and shoe manufacturing; and Fall River, Massachusetts, is chiefly concerned in making cotton goods.

Causes for Geographical Division of Occupations.—The thirteenth census of the United States gives several reasons for the localization of industry:

I. Nearness to raw materials. Other things being equal, nearness to raw materials aids industry. The flour-mills in Minneapolis, tobacco factories in Richmond, packinghouses in Kansas City, and many other local industries are thus explained.

3. Water-power and coal. Water - power originally helped New England. More recently it has created the manufacturing industries of Niagara Falls. Though now of less importance than proximity to a supply of fuel, water-power, on account of new methods of generating power and converting it into electricity promises to regain its former importance.

4. A favorable climate. For example, the moist climate of Fall River is favorable to the cotton-manufacturing industry.

5. A supply of suitable labor.

6. Local capital available for investment.

7. The advantage of an early start.

Increase in Population. The character and number of the people are of the utmost importance to a country in

its economic life. It is possible for a country to have more people than can be supported decently by the resources of that country. When this is the case the surplus population must either be decreased by emigration or suffering will result. On the other hand a country may not have enough people to utilize its resources. The United States has been a country which could utilize not only its own people but could offer employment to large numbers of immigrants. The population of the United States has therefore been increased by two methods: (1) The excess of births over deaths, (2) by immigration.

Natural Growth of Population. Where the birth-rate is high, the death-rate is usually correspondingly high. Roumania has the highest birth-rate in Europe and also the highest death-rate. Italy, Hungary, Saxony, and Bavaria have high birth-rates and high death-rates. The economic condition of a people does not seem to influence the birth-rate, but the birth-rate affects the economic condition. The overpopulated countries and overpopulation means more people than the country can well support in the present condition of arts and sciences-have a low standard of life and a high birth-rate.

France has the lowest birth-rate and lowest death-rate of the great European countries and the standard of living is higher than in any of the other countries of continental Europe. Roumania, with a low standard of living, has a birth-rate of 40.7 per thousand and a death-rate of 29.3 per thousand. Contrast the birth-rate of 22.2 per thousand and the death-rate of 21.5 per thousand in France with the rates in Roumania. The French people are thrifty and prudent, and marriages are not contracted unless there