struction material, new uses of the old, direct efforts of pupils in industrial and productive lines. The school men see also a coming industrial competition for which it is their duty to prepare the future business man, scientist, and technical worker. The Polytechnic Institute of Copenhagen is increasing its already excellent facilities and adding to its large number of practical courses in order the more successfully to prepare for the competition.

There is a new conception of the teacher's usefulness, which is not likely to be lost sight of after the present economic stringency. The teacher's duty no longer ends when he has taught his pupils something. It rests with him in a large measure to see to it that the teaching results in a sound and hearty form of living, the fundamental prerequisite of which is a strong and robust physique. In order to be of the greatest use here he must enlist the cooperation of the parents. This conception has been embodied in the regulations of December 31, 1917, applying to the secondary schools of Denmark. These regulations provide that parents' meetings are to be held once a year. Those eligible to participate in the proceedings and to vote on matters that come up for adoption are all who have children at the schools or who are the guardians of children attending. · The teachers of the schools have the privilege of attending and taking part in the discussion. To prepare topics for discussion a committee is appointed consisting of the superintendent as chairman, two teachers selected by the school board and four members from among the parents and guardians. The topics are to consist of the health-promoting conditions of the school (buildings, scheduled hours, study periods, home work, etc.) and other matters such as delinquency of pupils, conduct, promotions, appointment of teachers. A report is to be submitted to the Minister of Education covering the meetings in the district during the year.

A strong democratic feeling has long existed in the hearts of the Scandinavian people, a feeling now struggling to express itself in intellectual forms and institutions. Under the pressure of local political, economic, and geographic conditions it emerges in visible forms with marked differences in each country.

In Denmark this feeling has resulted in the creation of a type of schools that appeals for patronage to the farmers and middle classes, with the purpose of educating and returning them to their own class with such efficiency and prestige as education alone can confer.

Certain changes in the school statutes of Sweden, made in accordance with educational movements in that country, point to a trend toward greater local control of the schools. In 1913 measures were taken for the creation of a People's School Council, to be an advisory body, to criticize the general work of the schools, and to take the initiative toward improvements. In this capacity it will assume

some of the most important duties formerly exercised by the State Supervisory Board. In other respects, too, a degree of school control formerly vested in boards and committees of the clergy has been handed over to similar bodies of laymen. In a number of leading cities, details of the local educational institutions, formerly managed by the parish vestry meetings, have been put into the hands of the city councils. In the Report on the Schools of Sweden, issued by the Ecclesiastical Department for 1914–15,' is given a series of propositions which, according to the suggestions of the board, should be dealt with by subordinate authorities and acted upon without the formality of Royal approval.

As the character of the public elementary schools is the most direct expression of the people's views and wishes, it has been long regarded as desirable that the work of the secondary schools should be a direct continuation of these. When the real-skola (modern school) in Sweden, therefore, attracts pupils at the end of the third year, it causes them to make a departure from the original trend. To obviate this the communal middle schools grew up to fit the people's own children for government positions without necessitating a change in their, modes of life. These schools are, moreover, community institutions with schedules and working conditions less rigid than those of the State schools.

The people's voice, too, is strongly heard in its insistence on alteration in the form and method of the religious instruction in the elementary schools. Religious instruction should be brought before the children, not in confessional formulas, nor in maxims of conduct, but in life pictures taken from the Bible and from the history of the church. The earnest consideration given these demands by churchmen and educators will eventually lead to changes in the method of instruction in Christianity.

The

That the Government of Norway has responded to the desires of Norway's people is in part evidenced by the liberal appropriations made to the farmers and farming. A special session of the Storting was called to encourage a greater agricultural output for 1919. An allowance of 3,000,000 crowns was made for general agricultural purposes and 5,000,000 crowns for the cultivation of new land. Association of Norway's Young Men and Women has urged the erection of gymnasia for the country youth. Arrangements are also under way to establish an advanced secondary school without the middle. school, evidently to effect as close a relation as possible between the preparatory work of the folk school and the secondary institutions. Closely associated with the trend toward democracy is that toward internationalism, which in recent years has brought teachers and others of these countries together for cooperation. At its meeting in Stock

The latest at hand.

holm in 1910, the Teachers' Association of the North, an all-Scandinavian organization, celebrated its thirtieth anniversary. The work of this body, though not primarly directed towards international ends, has really moved in this direction in dealing with the problems which the members as teachers have in common. The annual meetings at one or other of three capitals brought teachers together as guests and hosts, creating opportunities for an understanding of each other's views. The questions that came up for consideration at the regular sessions gave rise to a number of school activities in which all were called upon to participate. It paved the way for an interchange of pupils' visits among these countries, leading to a better acquaintance among the pupils, and, as a consequence, among their parents. From 1907 on, such school visits have frequently been exchanged between Danish and Swedish pupils. In 1908 about 75 pupils at one time. visited Denmark, being entertained by Danish families and in return entertaining their hosts by music and songs from their own country. By contribution the members of the Teachers' Association raised money for the erection of a statue of a prominent educator, unveiled during the session of 1916 in connection with a special program. The girl pupils are publishing a Scandinavian students' magazine, “Bog og Naal," (Book and Needle), edited by a staff on which the three nations are represented.

1

These occasions of mutuality have deepened the sense of regard that the schools of one country have for the work and ideals of the other. Quite spontaneously the work has been so ordered in the respective schools as to minimize any feelir of antagonism that might exist in the pupils on account of the which their ancestors fought with each other. While the schools of the three countries were the first to get together, there have always been other similar movements such as the Workingmen's Association, which in the same way have conferred on their common interests. Although a distinct form of pressure was the moving cause in the recent meeting of the three governments in the persons of their kings, the preceding sessions of the people made this meeting more easily possible. At any rate this group of limited monarchies, essentially democratic, has discovered the road to the larger internationalism to which the world events of November, 1918, invite. A signal instance of their preparedness for these ideals was recently afforded in Norway, when the Peace Association of the country, in 1918, petitioned the Storting to establish at the University of Christiania a professorship in the science of international peace.

"The only detailed account at hand of these visits, which since that date have become more general.

NORWAY.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.

Obligatory attendance is formally fixed at 7 to 14 years of age, but the enforcement is such that the period of attendance depends upon the pupil's actual advancement rather than upon his age. The work of both teacher and school management is guided by an official handbook, which specifies the subjects, courses, hours, entrance conditions, holidays, vacations, and the weeks of the school year, which may be as high as 40, depending on local requirements.

The schools are maintained by taxes levied on the State, county, and municipality. Each county receives State aid in paying the rural teachers, to the amount of forty-four one-hundredths of the salary. In a county where it is found difficult to meet the expenses falling to its share, 15 per cent in addition to the above amount may be paid to it from the State funds. The expense of heating, lighting, and keeping the school property in order falls on the municipality. In the cities the State pays one-third of the teachers' salaries and two-thirds of certain service increments, all State contributions being limited by a fixed maximum.

The elementary schools.-Though the elementary school comprises seven years, pupils who expect to pursue studies beyond this course may enter the middle school from the fifth class. An effort was made some years ago to require the entire seven years as preparation for the middle school; it was hoped thereby to give education a more democratic character and to eliminate the feeling of social divergence and rank in the schools. Apart from these aspects of the proposed plan, educators did not find it practicable, for it would push the elementary school beyond its legitimate scope and endanger its work. Again it would postpone by two years the time when the pupil would naturally pass over to a continuation school.

The appended table based upon the official plan shows what subjects are studied in the seven years of the elementary schools and the time apportioned to each:

The middle schools.-The course of the middle school covers the next four years. Pupils are admitted upon examination. Here more time is given to Norwegian, including special study of the vernacular prevailing in the province in which the school is located. The instruction in religion includes reading of the Bible and study of the main events in church history.

Two foreign languages are taken up, English and German, three hours per week in the former and four in the latter. According to the present trend of opinion more time is to be given to English, which will receive five hours from the second class on. The aim of the foreign-language study is to be able to make extempore translations of easy foreign texts; but the pupils are also expected to be able to use the language in the course of ordinary easy conversation.

In nature study the aims are to attain knowledge of those animals and plants that are most closely connected with later practical callings. Hygiene and the principles of sanitation are here brought before the pupils, the study of the human body and the functioning of its organs, the effects of strong drink, and, in general, the laws seen in such natural phenomena as may readily be brought to the child's attention.

In mathematics practical considerations take precedence over theoretical ones. The child is led to deal with problems that enter into the every-day transactions in business, simple bookkeeping, and applied geometry. Courses in history lay special stress on modern times and events, and, in particular, on the history of Norway and its civil organization.

Geography takes up the natural features, topography, soil, climate, and industries of Norway. The work in writing now shows great improvement in class-room methods. The teacher leads the pupil to see and to know, then to arrange the material, and finally to put it in his own individual literary form.

Drawing takes an altogether practical direction, and aims to prepare the pupil not only for the later trade schools but for the advanced technical schools in which Norway occupies a foremost place. In sloyd and manual training the number of hours per week has recently been considerably increased.

The gymnasium.-The gymnasium follows with a three-year course. It divides into three branches: (1) The modern branch; (2) the history and language branch; and (3) the history-language branch with Latin. Accordingly, the pupil, when this stage is reached, has before him electives by groups. As the pupils who elect the Latin branch become acquainted with this subject rather late, the aim of instruction is acquaintance with about 150 pages of Caesar, Cicero, and Livy, and the ability to read an easy text extempore. The requirements in the mother tongue are familiarity