been actually carried out. Nor is it possible to state with any degree of accuracy the educational changes that have taken place in Russia since the overthrow of Kerenski and the establishment of the LeninTrotski régime. For lack of information this report closes, there fore, with the early months of the Bolshevist rule. As The old autocracy, shattered so easily, left a heavy heritage. is well known, education in Russia is very imperfectly developed. The policy of the czars was to impart to the people knowledge that would strengthen their own imperialistic aims. Nevertheless, it differed with each monarch. The reign of Czar Alexander I (18011825), especially its first half, was marked by an endeavor to build up a national system of education; his successor, Nicholas I (18251855) saw in the spread of schools and popular education a dangerous weapon against autocracy. The system by which schools of differ ent grades formed one continuous ascending chain was destroyed and a high barrier was set up between the elementary and secondary grades. Education was intended for the privileged classes only, and, although the school system was divided into four grades (parish school, district school, gymnasium, and university), leading from the primary school to the highest type of educational institution, no peasant's children, according to the Ukase issued in 1813 and reaffirmed in 1827, were to be admitted beyond the district school. A few years later even this privilege was denied them, and the tiller of the soil had to be content with the parish school only, though in Russia 85 per cent of the total population is rural. * * The fourth Minister of Instruction, Shishkov, with the approval of Czar Alexander and in his presence, issued the following statement: Knowledge is useful only, when, like salt, it is used and offered in small measures according to the people's circumstances and their needs. * To teach the mass of people, or even the majority of them, how to read will bring more harm than good.' This attitude was held by the higher authorities for a number of decades, and neither the abolition of serfdom in the sixties nor any subsequent reforms in Russian state affairs had any considerable effect upon educational conditions in that country. The accession of Alexander II (1855-1881) was marked by an intellectual revival and freedom of speech, but his assassination plunged the country into a state of reaction. A number of schools came under the control of the church and were governed by the Holy Synod, Russia's highest ecclesiastical authority. The church authorities also opened a series of church schools, where the child spent his years in learning how to read church music and church Slavonic characters, the rôle of which in eastern Europe may be compared to the part played in the west by Latin. The inevitable cleavage be 1 Musin-Pushkin, Shkola v Rossii, p. 22. tween the secular public schools and the parochial church schools. became wide and deep and the passing over of a pupil from a school of one type to that of another was attended with great difficulties. With Nicholas II (1894-1917) came a general revival of interest in educational matters, especially during the years following the RussoJapanese war. The second part of his reign was marked by an era of many pedagogical congresses, of various schemes for reforming the schools, of incessant attempts toward the improvement of the methods of teaching and the organization of schools of a new type. This revival, taken up by the zemstvos (rural councils) and numerous private agencies, did not succeeed, however, in bringing about complete reform. The most thoroughly democratic reforms, for which the progressive elements had been striving for decades, became effective in the early months of new Russia, and only the unfortunate internal strife of later days prevented their complete realization. SECULARIZATION OF SCHOOLS. One of the first acts of the Provisional Government of 1917 was the secularization of church schools, in order to put the educational institutions of the various departments under the control of the Ministry of Public Instruction. This important law, passed by the Provisional Government on June 20, 1917, reads in part:1 For an actual and uniform realization of general instruction all the elementary schools, included in the school system, or all those which receive state grants for their upkeep or for the salaries of the personnel, among others, the church schools under the control of the Greek-Orthodox Church, as well as the church seminaries and two-class schools, are herewith transferred to the Department of Public Instruction." This reform, as can be easily seen, was primarily directed against the orthodox parish church schools, the separatist tendencies of which proved to be a serious obstacle in the diffusion of popular education. The parish church schools differed widely in program and spirit from the neighboring secular schools in the same district. They were under strict supervision of the clergy and had no connection with the zemstvo schools, which were under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Instruction. The general standard of instruction in the parish schools was reputed to be below that of the zemstvo schools. The zemstvo social workers long tried in vain to take over the parochial institutions. Measures of the Minister of Public Instruction, aiming to increase the general expenditures for secular education, were often defeated on the ground that no similar provision was made for the parochial schools. The latter, although governed by the church, enjoyed grants apportioned by the state, which in 1916 alone, according to the Russian All the dates in this report are old style, Russian calendar. Vyestnik Vrem. Prav., 1917, No. 89. Yearbook for that year, amounted to $11,076, 383. The subsidy which the parochial schools received from the state in the end facilitated their final transfer from the domain of the church to that of the state and made possible their supervision by one central authority. The final blow inflicted upon the ecclesiastical school authorities came from the Soviet of the People's Commissaries, which in its session of January 20, 1918, officially proclaimed the separation of church and school. The immediate effect of that measure was the elimination of the teaching of religion and theology in all the public schools and the doing away of all discrimination between pupils on religious grounds.1 ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS. PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT. The administrative machinery by which the state maintained its control over education has undergone radical changes. For the better understanding of these changes, a word as to school administration under the old system seems necessary. Under the Czar's régime the entire state was divided into 15 educational districts, each headed by a curator. The curators, though nominated by the minister, had to be confirmed by the Czar. The power exercised by the curator within his own district was very large. It consisted not only in general supervision of all grades of schools, from the university downwards, but also the filling of vacancies in the ordinary staff of the schools. In addition, the curator had the right to nominate for confirmation by the minister persons fitted to discharge the functions of directors of secondary schools, and inspectors or deans of faculties in the universities. The actual inspection of secondary schools was done by his assistants, the district inspectors, while the supervision of elementary education was exercised by the directors of elementary schools and their subordinates, the inspectors of elementary schools. Matters pertaining to reforms within the sphere of authority of the curator were decided by the curator's council, in which the district inspectors also participated. Through this system of school administration all grades of educa tion were brought into direct relation with the curator and through him with the Minister of Public Instruction. As a counterpart to the ministerial schools, organized and controlled by the state, stood the educational institutions, established and maintained by the municipalities and zemstvos in those provinces where local selfgovernments were in existence. Though originally enjoying great liberties, the zemstvo schools were gradually correlated to the min 1 New Russian News, 1918, No. 38. isterial schools by a system of provincial and district school councils, which consisted of representatives of the ministry and the local self-government. The distinct feature of these councils was the active participation. of the nobility who, encouraged by the state, played an important rôle in directing the policy of the schools. The inspectors of both the ministerial and zemstvo schools were looked upon with great disfavor by the zemstvo social workers, who considered these officials as state agents interested more in the teachers' loyalty toward the ruling autocracy than in the education of the masses. The profound hatred which the ministerial inspectors had aroused manifested itself at the first teachers' conference, held in Moscow, immediately after the downfall of the Czar. The cries there first heard openly of "Down with the hateful inspectors of the public schools, down with the council! The power of the school belongs to the teacher!" 1 augured ill for the system of school inspection, as hitherto practiced in Russia. This dictatorship "from above" broke down completely with the coming to power of the Provisional Government. The policy of the new school authorities was to refer the administration of the schools to the local self-governing bodies, the zemstvos and the municipalities. The decree of May 8, 1917, regarding elementary education reads: In localities where the provincial or district zemstvos are in existence, the municipal, district, and provincial school councils are to be abolished. In place of the abolished councils the administration of elementary education is temporarily laid upon provincial or district zemstvos, while in cities with a municipal school council administration elementary education is given over to the municipal duma.2 By placing the educational affairs in the hands of the local authorities, the post of the curator became superfluous and was abolished by the decree of September 26, 1917. With it went, as a natural consequence, the Curator's Council and its autocratic machinery, the directorates and inspectorates of schools. 3 Although the new Ministry of Public Instruction outlined a comprehensive and far-reaching program for the reconstruction of schools, it encountered powerful opposition on the part of the radical elements of Russian society. This was due to the old deeply rooted distrust of reforms emanating from governmental bureaus, where the people had hitherto no voice. The Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies demanded the organization of a special State Committee of Public Instruction attached to the ministry and representative of the people. Organized in May, 1917, the State Commission of Public Instruction comprised representatives of the All-Russian Soviets of 1 Russkiya Vyedomosti, 1917, No. 76. Vyestnik Vr. Prav., 1917, No. 178. Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, representatives from the union of towns, zemstvos, and various other organizations, mostly political. Educational workers were represented in a small minority. The function of this committee was to devise laws and see that these were laid before the Provisional Government through the channels of the ministry. The sessions of the state committee bore many fruits. Regulations were issued concerning elementary education,' the enforcement of compulsory education,' the administration of public schools, and the autonomy of the middle schools. The committee recommended also the introduction of the new spelling in public schools, higher salaries for elementary-school teachers, and various other reforms, general and particular. The decision of the state committee with regard to administration rests on the principle, so familiar to us, that public education is the affair of the local self-governments, by which body it should be administered. For the immediate administration of schools there should be formed special provincial and district boards of public instruction. As to jurisdiction, according to the state committee, the local boards should care, among other things, for the general maintenance of laws and regulations pertaining to public education, the administration of educational institutions, the coordination of all activities pertaining to public education in a given area, and the collection of statistical data on education. In addition, each provincial zemstvo may distribute state grants for education to the various districts and towns according to the decisions of the Provincial Zemstvo Assemblies." The reforms mentioned above, whether outlined or actually introduced, represent, as can be easily seen, the general trend of democratization of schools, as found in other democratic countries. The action of the Provisional Government was not revolutionary. Local self-governments existed in Russia for over 50 years, and, by granting them a voice in educational affairs, the provisional authorities simply complied with the wishes of those who have in vain sought this privilege for the past five decades. Autonomy of middle schools. The projected reforms of the State Committee relating to the autonomy of middle schools received cordial support of the Minister of Public Instruction, Salazkin. A bill introduced in September, 1917, for the approval of the Provisional Government places the control of all schools above the primary grades in the hands of the Council of Education. According to this bill, "the immediate control of the higher elementary schools, boys' and girls' progymnasiums and gymnasiums, real schools, normal schools, and other institutions receiving State grants in full, 1 The details are not available. or Vyestnik Vospitaniya, 1917, No. 6-7, pp. 25-35. sub |