of the physical sciences. Their courses cover three years, and upon their completion the pupil is admitted to the istituti tecnici, the most highly specialized of all the divisions of secondary education. In the field of the lower technical schools Sig. Berenini has proposed to the Consiglio Superiore certain reforms calculated to subserve more fully the scientific needs of the nation. Chief among these are:

1. The decrease of two hours weekly in the schedule of each class, thus leaving three afternoons per week free of teaching, to be devoted preferably to physical education and the combination of the sciences and mathematics, thus preserving in the school all the subjects prescribed by the law.

2. The lightening of some subjects and distribution of others through the three years, as, for example, in Italian, the abolition of all rules of composition as well as all memorizing of names in Italian literature; the coordination of all study of Italian literature with history, substituting for the systematic and chronological study of history the biographical and episodic method; the reservation of the difficult points of cosmography for the second class; the beginning of geometry in the first class, and its limitation to a purely experimental and graphic nature.

3. The rendering identical the technical schools for girls with those for boys, in subjects, arrangement of courses, and schedules, except for instruction in domestic arts.

(c) NORMAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS' INSTITUTES.

The training of teachers for the elementary schools of Italy was earnestly and continuously discussed for years before Italy's entrance into the war. With new and unprecedented demands upon the schools, there has been a growing conviction that the traditional subjects and methods of training teachers were too exclusively literary to prepare teachers for the elementary school and that they must be thoroughly reconstructed. Under the existing system, teachers are trained in normal schools, separate for men and women, and offering three years' courses in pedagogy, lectures and theory, ethics, Italian language, literature, history and geography, mathematics, elements of natural sciences, hygiene, drawing, penmanship, elements of agriculture, gymnastics, and practice teaching in the first grade of the elementary school. For men, gymnastics and manual arts, and for women, household arts and kindergarten teaching are also required. Completion of the studies of the higher elementary school with examinations on selected subjects is necessary for admission.

In the criticism of the old order of training, and the demand for a more modern type, individuals, teacher's associations, and the

press participated. The National Teachers' Association, meeting in Rome in 1918 and using as a basis the results of the referendum taken among the teachers of 17 cities and towns, well summed up the situation as follows:

The elementary school had in the last few years become completely transformed in its character, and the demands made upon it had changed as well. It had doubled its content, and in its programs, no matter with what shortcomings, was at least attempting to embrace a new field of activities, and so to keep abreast of modern conditions. With this development, the normal schools, through no fault of their own, had not kept pace. They had been forced to continue to train teachers for the simple and primitive schools of half a century ago, long since outgrown, and they simply could not give adequate preparation for the complex demands of modern life.

This nation-wide demand for normal teaching reform crystalized early in 1918 in a bill presented by Sig. Berenini for passage by the Italian Parliament. Its progressive nature once made known, the bill found instant and hearty support, and the senate passed it with but little delay. In the Chamber of Deputies, however, it encountered unexpected opposition, and in June, 1918, was referred to a conference committee. Though its actual enactment was thus postponed, yet its passage is confidently anticipated. In content and scope this bill marks so decided an advance in the training of national teachers as to merit a careful examination of its main lines, based upon the actual legal provisions.

1. Purpose. The teachers' institute (istituto magistrale) has the aim of preparing teachers for the elementary and popular schools. It shall be for men and for women, separate. If for men, it shall be of four years; if for women, seven years, the first two years to be counted as belonging to the istituti of the first grade, and the last five to those of the second grade.

2. Relation to the present normal schools.-The existing normal schools for women, with the annexed practice schools, are to be transformed into women's istituti magistrali of seven years; those without annexed practice schools are to be transformed into men's istituti magistrali of four years, corresponding to the last four years of the seven-year type, particular details to be left to the ministerial decree. Existing provincial, communal and other istituti for the training of teachers may secure rating as istituti magistrali upon conforming in all respects to the present law.

3. Subjects to be taught.-The subjects of the first six classes of the women's istituti shall be: Italian language, literature, history and geography, general pedagogy and ethics, French, mathematics, physical and natural sciences, domestic arts, drawing and penman

ship, singing and physical education. The subjects to be taught in the first three classes of the men's istituti shall be identical with those for the corresponding years of women's istituti, except for the addition of agriculture, hygiene, and two years of manual arts. In the last class of all istituti shall be: History and methodology of pedagogy, hygiene, agriculture, singing, advanced physical education, and practice teaching in the annexed elementary or popular school, or kindergarten. Instruction in hygiene is to be imparted by specialists, and that in agriculture by a traveling instructor, or by an instructor in a neighboring practical school of agriculture, or by governmentally certified individuals. In localities where constant emigration exists, instruction may be imparted to pupils of the last year by qualified persons on the Government, industries, social conditions, etc., of the countries to which such emigration tends, in 10 lessons outside the regular schedule. For each such course of instruction in hygiene, agriculture, and emigration a fee of 20 lire ($4) per year may be charged. The weekly schedule of the istituto magistrale shall not exceed 24 hours for any class, not including those devoted to singing and physical education. Details of the order of subjects, etc., shall be determined by the subsequent ministerial regulations.

4. Annexed practice schools.—To every istituto magistrale shall be annexed for purposes of practice teaching at least one complete grade of the elementary or popular school, under the direction of the head of the istituto; and if there are more than three sections of these there shall be annexed one additional grade of the practice school for each section. To every women's istituto there shall be annexed one class at least of the asili infantili, it being left to ministerial regulation to reorganize the existing Fræbelian classes in accordance with the needs of the istituto. Subject to the general oversight of the head of the istituto, the management of the annexed practice schools shall be entrusted to the professor of pedagogy, except that the courses in mathematics, physical and natural sciences in such practice schools shall be entrusted to the teacher of these sciences. In instructional matters the teacher of pedagogy shall be assisted by the professor of manual arts and drawing in such manner as shall be determined by ministerial decree.

5. Admission to the istituti magistrali.-Admission to the first class of the women's seven-year course shall be the same as that required for admission to the first class of the middle schools of the first grade; to all other classes by promotion examination.

Admission to the first class of the men's four-year istituto shall be by certificate of promotion from the third to the fourth class of the ginnasi on the basis of the required examination; to all the other classes by promotion examination.

6. Relation to other schools.-The relation between the several classes of the istituto magistrale and the other middle schools shall be determined by the Giunta of the Consiglio Superiore. Promotion shall be governed by the rules in force for the other middle schools; but examinations shall be obligatory throughout the school year, and in pedagogy and ethics up to the end of the next to the last year. A special examination on hygiene and agriculture is required at the end of the course. Passing of the yearly examinations upon singing and physical education is required for promotion and for the qualification for teaching.

7. Diplomas, fees, etc.-The istituti magistrali confer the diploma of qualification for teaching in elementary and popular schools upon the completion of the respective seven or four years' courses. Candidates must have completed their eighteenth year.

Graduated fees for admission, attendance, and examinations in various subjects and years are charged.

8. Equipment.-Every istituto magistrale, both for men and women, shall be provided with (a) a scientific cabinet for instruction and experiment, in charge of the respective teachers; (b) laboratories for manual arts, hygiene, agriculture, drawing, and practice teaching, each in charge of the respective teacher; (c) a teachers' museum for instruction and practice teaching, in charge of the teacher of pedagogy; (d) a library and reading room, in charge of the teacher of history and geography; and (e) a well-equipped gymnasium and hall for teachers of physical education and singing. For expenses incurred under this head, 150,000 lire ($30,000) shall be appropriated for 1918-19, to be increased by 50,000 annually up to 300,000 lire.

9. Maintenance.-The Province in which the istituto is situated shall provide the site and building, the furniture and school equipment, exclusive of the strictly didactic apparatus detailed above, and lighting and heating service. The commune in which the istituto is situated shall provide the site, buildings, and equipments of the practice schools annexed, and the salaries of the teachers employed in them. The Government shall provide the salaries of the teaching personnel of the istituto itself.

10. Teachers.-The teachers of the istituto shall be as follows, with the grouping of subjects as indicated:

One teacher (Class A1) of pedagogy, ethics, and practice teaching; 3 teachers (2 of Class A and 1 of Class B) of the Italian language, literature and history, and geography; 1 teacher (Class A) of French; 1 teacher (Class A) of natural sciences; 1 teacher (Class

1 By Class A are denoted incumbents of the full chair, with complete control of subject and methods. By Classes B and C are denoted assistants and subordinates, responsible to higher authority.

1

A) of manual arts; 1 teacher (Class B) of drawing and penmanship; 1 teacher (Class B) of domestic arts; 1 teacher (Class C) of physical education; and 1 instructor of hygiene and singing.

If in women's istituto, 1 teacher, of Class B, of domestic arts, and 1 mistress of the infant class.

Especial care shall be had in the selection of the teacher of manual arts. He shall be selected only by competitive examination and must be a person holding the regular qualifying degree in manual arts; or, under temporary provisions of the ministerial regulation, a person who has for four years taken summer courses in these subjects, with successful qualifying examinations. For the men's istituto, also, an instructor in agriculture is required. With the view of ultimately establishing distinctive schools of manual arts, provision shall be made in the men's istituto, in the discretion of the Consiglio Superiore, for two years' courses in manual arts, embracing practical exercises, mechanics, technical training, drawing, and the history and theory of manual-arts education.

11. Application of the law. The present law, in its practical effects and modifications of groups of studies, shall be gradually ap plied from the beginning of the school year of 1918-19, in accordanco with specific regulations to be promulgated by the Consiglio Superiore. Administrative heads of the present normal schools shall be ex officio heads of the new istituti magistrali.

Despite some points on which there is a difference of opinion among educational thinkers-as, for example, the organic grouping of Italian history and geography in one chair-the spirit and provisions of the projected law receive practically universal approval throughout Italy. It is regarded as realizing reforms long needed in the training of teachers, especially in the following respects: In prolonging the course of study, in reducing the excessive number of hours of weekly schedule, in abolishing pretentious striving after effect, in combining related courses of instruction, in organically correlating them, and so leading the pupil up to the concentration upon exclusively pedagogical subjects during the last year. The consensus of opinion is that while a more radical project for the training of teachers might have been presented, the one actually formulated is practical and feasible, and, while not too far in advance of the existing system, yet marks a long step forward in securing a national body of teachers better trained than any preceding

one.

(d) GINNASI AND LICEI.

The wave of criticism directed against the various grades of education did not stop short of the traditional, and by their very conservative middle schools of these titles. Appealing as