varied from a mere catalogue of events to the modern idea that history should contain not only a narrative of events, but also a philosophic analysis of motive and action, as well as a clear interpretation of cause and effect.

2. ANNALS are a bare record of public events, written down from

year to year.

3. CHRONICLES are also a primitive kind of history. They consist of a narrative of affairs of state, somewhat more extensive than annals, but with strict attention to chronological order.

4. MEMOIRS is a term applied chiefly to the relation of events that have come within the writer's personal knowledge. In the higher forms it deals with topics that belong to the province of history. It does not, however, pretend to be a systematic record, but rather a conversational account of matters of greater or less importance.

5. BIOGRAPHY is the history of an individual life. When written by the person himself, it is called Autobiography. The biography of prominent men often entails much of the history of their times. A short biography is called a Memoir.

6. DIARY is a daily record of a person's life. It resembles Autobiography, but differs from it in that it deals with the events of only one day at a time. Moreover, it is not intended to be seen by any one except the writer.

7. TRAVELS Contain an account of what a person sees or learns from day to day on his journey through foreign countries. They consist largely of description, and ought to be clear and accurate.

8. NEWS, an account of events of all kinds from all parts of the world, is at present one of the most common kinds of writing. Though it may not strictly deserve the name of literature, yet much skill and experience are required to write it with the necessary clearness, brevity, and accuracy.

9. FICTION resembles biography, but differs from it in that the matter is invented by the writer. Though the incidents it narrates never actually occurred, and the persons whose lives and characters it describes never lived, yet they are types of what did

exist at the time and under the circumstances indicated. It is true to nature.

Fiction may be divided into the Romance and the Novel.

The Romance is a kind of Fiction in which the incidents are of an extravagant and improbable character.

The Novel is of two kinds, the Historical Novel and the Domestic Novel. In the former, historical characters are made to take part in the supposed incidents. Scott's novels are a good example. In the latter domestic life and character are depicted in minute detail. There is always a plot, and in its development the passions, particularly love, play an important part. The purpose of Fiction is manifold. It may aim at teaching history, at conveying some doctrine, enforcing some moral or religious views, making the reader acquainted with the customs and modes of life of by-gone days, or of merely giving pleasure by the excitement of plot, the beauty of language, and the charm of description.

Principles. In Narration there are certain principles that should be observed.

1. The events should be placed before the reader as he would have seen them had he been present.

2. Every fact or event should be made to grow out of something previous. In fiction this principle is often violated for the purpose of creating a more intense interest in the plot.

3. The entire narration should centre in one principal action or event. Where this is not possible for the whole, as in history, then each distinct part should be formed on this principle.

4. Where there are simultaneous trains of action, there should, generally, be a principal one, and such subordinate ones as are naturally connected with it as causes, consequences, or circumstances.

5. When there are several streams of events of nearly equal importance, the ordinary method is to carry one up to a certain point, and then return to bring up the others, one by one, to the same date. This must be repeated to the end of the whole. Every reader of fiction will have noticed this method.

6. The scene and the actors should be changed as seldom as possible; and when such a change is made, attention should be called to the fact. This rule does not hold in fiction.

7. In addition to the general rules laid down above, the following points may be noted respecting history: —

a. As many features have to be detailed, such as the progress of the arts and sciences, the development of literature, the advancement of morality, and the delineation of character, the writer is compelled to take up these various topics one by one and complete each singly, or, at least, carry it through a certain period.

b. History must be systematic and complete; the plan must show the unity of the whole and at the same time give every part its proper setting.

c. It is essential that the order of time be clearly followed, and that the dates should be so interwoven with the narrative as to form a definite framework on which to hang the events.

d. To give the reader a clear insight into the situation of affairs, the historian often goes backward and recounts the preceding cir

cumstances.

e. Again, for clearness and for aid to the memory, he makes frequent summaries of the events which he has related in detail. By these succinct and comprehensive views, the mind is assisted in grasping the subject as a whole.

f. In the delineation of character the historian has an opportunity to vary the narrative by word-pictures of the men who have fixed the destiny of the nation.

He

8. The narrator should not attempt to relate everything. should give the salient points, and leave the rest to the reader to supply.

Style. The topics of narration are so varied that no absolute rules can be laid down as to the language to be employed. It inust, however, always be suited to the subject in hand. In general, it should be plain, simple, and perspicuous. In history it must be calm and dignified; while its elegance and beauty are among the most engaging charms of fiction. When the subject

will allow, the style may rise to the graceful, the flowing, or even to the elegant, but should never be pompous or stilted, or in any way adapted to draw off the attention from the subject to itself.

The Parts. The Introduction should contain such particulars about the time, place, and actors or events, as are necessary to place the subject clearly before the reader and to awaken his interest in it. This may occupy one or more paragraphs.

The Discussion contains the events arranged in their order of

occurrence.

In the Conclusion will come the result, detailed to suit the special circumstances of the case.

Sometimes no formal conclusion is required; at others, a summary of events is a valuable aid to the memory.

The Paragraphs should, as far as possible, deal each with a separate part of the relation, and should be so connected as to carry on the story in a clear and connected manner.

Framework.As Narration consists merely in a presentation of known events or facts, there is nothing to be done in the way of invention (except in Fiction) but to devise the method, form, and style. Practice in Narration. - In order to secure practice in Narration, a story may be selected from which to draw up a framework. In this exercise special care must be taken to distinguish between the leading thoughts and the subordinate ones. The foling is an example from Scott's Talisman.

Theme: The Combat.

FRAMEWORK.

I. INTRODUCTION : —

1. Time, Third Crusade.

2. Place, The Diamond of the Desert.

3. Persons, Sir Kenneth and Conrad.

II. DISCUSSION :—

1. The preparations.

a. Arming.

b. The herald's proclamation.

c. Taking positions.
d. The invocation.
2. The combat proper.
a. The signal.

b. The start.

c. In career.

d. The shock at meeting.

e. Its result.

III. CONCLUSION: The effect in settling the dispute.

As a more difficult exercise, a framework may be constructed on some event that has come under the learner's notice and that has not yet been committed to writing. Take the following as an example:

Theme: How I spent the Holidays.

FRAMEWORK.

I. INTRODUCTION : —

1. Where.

2. With whom.

II. DISCUSSION :

How we spent the time.

1. In boating.

Incident - an upset.

2. Trout-fishing.

One big fish.

3. Riding.

4. In the woods.

Incident with a friendly Indian.

III. CONCLUSION: What I learned, and how much my health was improved.

Writing out. In writing out these outlines, the Introduction, the Conclusion, and the several divisions of the Discussion may each form a paragraph; or, when it is desired to be more minute, each of these may form several paragraphs.