posits usually in dry weather become dust or loose sand, and do not pack so as to form a hard surface. As often as there is occasion these substances should be scraped off, as is practiced in all city streets, and carried to the compost heap for manure. This is particularly necessary when new material is to be added, as stone or gravel applied upon soft substances of this kind will sink at once to the bottom of it, and the mud and dust will remain, or if it be in sufficient quantity the new material will mix with it and increase its depth.

By thoroughly scraping off the mud, and then lifting the solid surface thus exposed with the pick, the new material will be at once incorporated with the old, and the desired smooth and hard track will be secured.

Spreading the materials.-This may seem perhaps a very trivial matter upon which to give specific directions, but much more depends upon properly spreading the materials than a casual observer would suppose. The common method of mending roads is to shoot down a cart-load of material upon the spot which seems to need repair, and another and another at short distances apart till the requisite amount is procured, then with hoes or shovels a portion is thrown each way, the main body remaining where it was first placed. All who have travelled over roads thus repaired will remember that the surface is almost always undulating, the parts where the heaps of gravel or stone were laid remaining more solid than the rest. It is almost impossible to spread material from heaps formed in this way so as to form an even surface. The best mode is to deposit the material in heaps a little one side of the pathway, and then with a shovel scatter it evenly, as if sowing grain, over the surface. In this way an even coating may be given over the whole, and a uniform section may be formed.

Watering roads.-A certain degree of moisture is beneficial to all common roads, independently of the object of protecting the traveller from dust. On roads prepared with stone or gravel, especially if the gravel be unscreened, in a very dry time the pieces of stone on the pebbles become loosened, and the crust of the surface is broken up, thus rendering the draught heavy and increasing the pulverization and wear of the track. The dust thus created is blown off by the wind, or must be scraped off in the form of mud. A moderate, occasional sprinkling, by means of a water-cart, will very much tend to the preservation of the road, and on roads of great travel prove a great saving of money: The introduction of the water-cart for the purpose may be considered one of the greatest of modern improvements in the preservation of roads. Good judgment, based on careful observation, however, is necessary to regulate the quantity of water applied. Too large a quantity of water will tend to form mud, which is a greater evil than the dust of a dry season. To keep the surface slightly damp, and yet to create no mud which will adhere to the wheel, is what is desired.

Width and form of wheels.—Since those who have charge of highways have rightfully great influence in procuring proper legislation upon the subject of the proper use of them, it may be proper to speak briefly of the comparative effect of broad and narrow wheels upon common roads. Penfold says: "Injurious action upon the surface of the road diminishes progressively as the width of the felloe increases, provided the weight be not excessive. A wheel may so increase in width as to act as a roller or compresser, and within certain limits the heavier the roller, the more effectual it is in producing the desired effect, viz., compression." For such reasons, the statutes of many States make discrimination as to the toll to be paid on turnpike roads by carriages with broad and narrow wheels. The New York turnpike laws provide that carriages with six-inch tire shall pay only half the usual tolls; those with nine-inch tire one-fourth, and those with twelve-inch tire, none at all. Penfold has made calculations in relation to roads in England, which agree with these proportions.

Narrow wheels are cheaper than wide ones, and are of lighter draught on roads of hard surface, and are therefore likely to be generally used. Wide wheels give an easier draught upon spongy and loose roads in general, although in roads.

already cut up by narrow wheels wider ones might even increase the draught by being obliged to widen the rut where the surface would not carry the weight of the load. It may be added that the advantages of wide tires to the highway are nearly, if not entirely, lost when the tire, instead of being flat, is rounded in form, in which case it is pressed into the pathway in the centre, and has the effect of a narrow wheel in breaking it up.

Conical wheels, made dishing, as we often see them, with the tire so set that the bearing on the ground is on the inside edge of the wheel, injure the path by cutting it up by reason of the unequal bearing, and they also have a compound dragging motion, caused by the tendency of the larger edge to go faster than the other. The wheel, notwithstanding this tendency, is forced straight forward, thus grinding and displacing the surface materials.

The use of upright wheels on straight axles with square tires should be encouraged.

On a broken stone road, firm and compact, the load ought not to exceed one ton to each wheel of ordinary size, having a tire four inches broad if without springs, or two and a half inches broad with springs. It may be added that wheels of small diameter are more destructive to roads than those of larger size. Roads of broken stone are much benefited by being rolled, when constructed or repaired, with an iron roller of two or three tons weight. In France steam rollers weighing ten tons have been recently introduced.

CONDI

CONDITION AND RESOURCES OF GEORGIA.

BY REV. C. W. HOWARD, LIVINGSTON, GEORGIA.

THE State of Georgia covers an area of fifty-eight thousand square miles. It is the largest of the old States east of the Mississippi river, except Virginia, extending through more than four degrees of latitude and five of longitude. It is equal in size to England and Wales, and larger than Holland, Belgium, Denmark, and Switzerland united.

The following statistics are condensed from the census of 1860 and the Comptroller General's report for 1866. The population of Georgia in 1860 was 591,588 whites, 3,500 free colored, and 462,198 slaves; total, 1,057,286, being 18.23 to the square mile. The ratio of increase of population from 1790 to 1860 was nearly 1181 per cent., the population of the State in 1790 being but 82,548, a much larger increase in the same period than that of any of the New England States, or even New York or Pennsylvania.

The number of polls of whites in 1860 was 99,748; in 1866, 86,909; decrease, 12,839. Number of negro polls in 1866, 55,909. The decrease is not stated, though it is known to be enormous from the deaths and emigration to the west. The total value of property, including slaves, in 1860, was, in United States currency, $1,008,484,165. Total value in 1866 was $222,183,787; decrease and loss, $786,300,378. The total value of property, exclusive of slaves, in 1860, $554,441,883; in 1866, $222,183,787; decrease since 1860, $322,258,096. The taxable property of 1866 amounts to $207,051,677, exclusive of railroads, banks, express companies, and foreign insurance agencies.

The total value of land in 1860 was $161,764,955; in 1866, $103,112,524. The average value per acre in 1860, $4 85; in 1866, $3 42, being a decrease of

$1 43 per acre. This decrease is greater now than when the report of the comptroller was submitted.

Of farms of more than 1,000 acres there were, in 1860, 902, being a much greater number of farms of this size than in any other State. The average number of acres to the farm in Georgia is 430. The number of farms is 62,000; acres of land improved, 8,062,758; of land unimproved, 18,587,732.

The products of the State in 1860 were: tobacco, 919,318 pounds; sugar, 1,167 hogsheads; hemp, 31 tons; peas and beans, 1,765,214 bushels; cotton, 701,840 bales of 400 pounds. Access has not been had to means of information as to the grain crops since 1850. At that time the products were: eorn, 30,080,099; oats, 3,820,044; wheat, 1,088,534; rye, 53,750 bushels. In 1860 there must have been a vast increase of each of the above mentioned grain crops. The war has again reduced them. Added to the casualties of war there have been two consecutive years of drought, so that during the last year there has not been sufficient grain raised in Georgia to feed its population and live stock.

The value of city and town property in 1860 was $52,709,122; in 1866 it was $39,396,181. Money and solvent debts in 1860 were $161,004,387; in 1866, $34,521,678; a decrease of $126,482,709. Merchandise in 1860, $23,365,789; in 1866, $10,933,173; decrease $12,432,616. Shipping and tonnage in 1860, $1,415,910; in 1866, $215,667; decrease $1,200,243. Stocks and manufactures in 1860, $6,051,373; in 1866, $4,120,489; decrease, $1,930,884. Property not enumerated in 1860, $63,640,942; in 1866, $28,751,667. Estimated losses on railroads, $15,000,000; on banks, $30,000,000; on public buildings and churches, $10,000,000; total loss since 1860, $841,254,876. This loss occurs in a State in which there are but 99,748 white polls, being an average of $8,423 to the poll.

The entire debt of the State is $5,706,500; assets, in round numbers, $9,000,000. Its taxable property is more than $200,000,000. The State is therefore perfectly solvent. The new bonds are now selling at 97 cents, and must soon be at par. The State tax is but one-sixth of one per cent., being al

most nominal.

Affected by the terrible casualties of war, by loss of loved ones, loss of property, by the almost entire loss of two consecutive crops, the people of Georgia have still not "despaired of the republic." Leaving public affairs to the management of those who have control of them, they have addressed themselves with sublime energy to the work of reconstructing their lost fortunes. If they fail, it will be from the operation of causes beyond their reach. Burned cities and villages have been rebuilt, every railroad has been repaired and is again in running order, new railroads are in progress of construction, factories have been rebuilt, and new ones on a larger scale will soon be completed, the old mines are worked. and every where in the mining region new shafts are being sunk. Failure from seasons and defective labor have but served to stimulate the farmer and planter to greater exertions. There has been no whining, no gloom, no prostration. The people see that they made a great mistake, and instead of merely deploring the past, they are determined to make the best of the future. It is an exhibition of elasticity under misfortune which can be presented only by the AngloSaxon race.

Climate, geological formation and products naturally divide the State into northeastern, northwestern, middle, southeastern, and southwestern Georgia. Each section differs materially from the others. In fact, it would be difficult to point out another country of equal extent in which so great a variety of soil, climate and products can be found as in the State of Georgia. In one extreme are produced oranges, lemons, bananas, olives and other tropical fruits; the other yields all the products of the northern States. One cause of this variety is the different elevation of the several sections. The town of Marietta, in Cobb county, about 300 miles distant by railroad from the coast, is twelve hundred

feet above the level of the occan, the country descending from it north, west and south. There is scarcely a plant of value to man, except coffee, which cannot be grown successfully in Georgia. There is not a metal of material use in the arts, except tin and platinum, which is not found in workable quantity in this State. It therefore contains within itself all the essential elements of independence in a remarkable degree, is capable of producing all the requisite articles of food and clothing and most of the luxuries for a very large population, and possesses abundant water power to run all necessary machinery. With sufficient capital and population, and with a proper division of labor, nothing need be brought from abroad but coffee, while the cotton, rice, lumber and mineral products would give it a large export trade.

Northeastern Georgia is primitive in its formation, limestone being found only in a few scattered localities. This section is strictly mountainous, some of the mountain peaks being of great elevation. The summer climate is delightful in temperature, and perfectly healthy. The scenery well repays the attention of the tourist, as in no part of the United States is it finer. The creek and river lands are rich, producing fine crops of grass and grain, while the uplands are generally rolling and comparatively thin. The markets for this section are Athens and Atlanta. No railroads pass through it, though several are in contemplation and will be built. The farms are generally small, and the lands cheap. Northeastern Georgia has felt the effects of the war less than any other portion of the State.

Northwestern Georgia, touching both Tennessee and Alabama, is one of the most admirable portions of the United States. It is a blue limestone region, bounded by the Chattahoochee river on the south, the primitive mountains on the east, and Lookout mountain on the west, touching the Tennessee river on the north. It is the connecting link between the Great West and the Atlantic. The Etowah, Coosawattee, Connasauga, Chickamauga, Oostanaula, Chattanooga, and Coosa pass through it. The Coosa is navigable from Rome to the falls above Wetumpka, in Alabama. The attention of capitalists is being turned to these obstructions, and when they are removed, which must ere long be the case, navigation will be uninterrupted from Rome to Selma and Mobile. The Oostanaula is navigable from Rome to Calhoun for small steamboats. The head waters of this river can be connected by a canal with the Tennessee river, and a glance at the map will show the national importance of this grand work of internal improvement. The want of this canal and these obstructions on the Coosa are all that now prevent water communication between East Tennessee and Mobile, and the three States are deeply interested in opening this communication with the least possible delay.

The great railroad trunk, the Western and Atlantic road, built by the State, passes through the heart of this section from Chattanooga to Atlanta. Besides this the Dalton and Selma railroad will soon be completed. A short railroad connects Rome with the Western and Atlantic road at Kingston. The products of northwestern Georgia can be transported by direct lines of railroad to Charleston, Savannah, and Mobile towards the south, and Nashville and Knoxville towards the north.

Before the war there were several flourishing towns, but Cassville, formerly having a population of two to three thousand, was burned during the war, not a house being left standing. Marietta was greatly injured. Rome escaped with comparatively little loss, and has regained its former prosperity. This place, (Rome,) situated at the confluence of the Etowah and Oostanaula rivers, and remarkable for the beauty of its situation, must, from its connections and the great fertility of the surrounding country, become a town of considerable importance.

The river and valley lands of northwestern Georgia are very fertile, and comparatively fresh, as the Indians were removed in 1889. The valleys vary in

width from one-fourth of a mile to two miles. In 1860 these river and valley lands readily commanded from ten to seventy-five dollars per acre; now they can be bought much cheaper, as this section suffered more from the war than any other portion of Georgia. Wheat yields from seven to thirty bushels per acre, and is usually sowed on stock land, without ploughing. The ground is not manured, except in rare instances, and then on small lots. A large amount of wheat was annually shipped from this section to New York, where it commanded the highest prices, not only from its excellence, but from its being so much in advance of the northern crops. Corn ranges from twenty to fifty bushels per acre, the land being broken up with a one-horse plough, and not manured. With manure and deep ploughing as much corn per acre can be made in this section as from any similar lands in the United States. Clover and the grapes grow well. On the Etowah river, and in those valleys in which the soil contains sand, cotton yields as much per acre as in any part of the State.

The climate is agreeable, being bracing in winter and cool in summer, though not so cool as in the mountainous portion of northeastern Georgia. It is perfectly healthy, except in the vicinity of sluggish creeks, where there is a liability to chills and fever. The water power is abundant, and is frequently found on the line of the railroads. Bituminous coal of excellent quality is extracted near the Tennessee line, and iron ore, lime, cement, slate, and white marble abound. But of these more will be said hereafter.

The writer is familiar with the middle and northern States, and has travelled extensively in Europe, and does not hesitate to say that he has not seen a section of country in which Providence has heaped together so large a number of things desirable for the comfort and prosperity of man as in northwestern Georgia. Reference is made to natural advantages, as soil, climate, variety of products, and access to markets, with the qualifications of discomfort which must necessarily exist in a new country. Middle Georgia extends north and south from the Chattahoochee river to the flat pine woods which reach from the coast about one hundred miles inland. There are no mountain ranges, the surface being gently and pleasantly undulating. Large portions of this section were originally very rich, being covered with wild pea vines and nutritious grapes; but they have been scourged by bad cultivation, and are worn and gullied to a deplorable degree. The average product, without manure, is now about 500 pounds of seed cotton, seven to ten bushels of corn, and five to seven bushels of wheat per acre. Manure acts well upon them, and it is easier to restore an acre of these lands to their original fertility than to clear an acre of new ground.

Before the war lands in middle Georgia averaged, perhaps, ten dollars per acre, but they would not now command half of that price. A large amount of these lands will be left this year uncultivated, from the impossibility of obtaining reliable labor. Most of middle Georgia is quite healthy, the winter being mild and the summer warm, though not so hot as to interfere with white labor, which can be used to advantage. The climate is incomparably better, winter and summer, than that of the new northwestern States, towards which the stream of emigration is so largely turned.

The principal rivers are the Savannah and its tributaries, the Oconee, Ockmulgee, Flint, and Chattahoochee. The Savannah is navigable to Augusta. The rivers are bordered with bottom lands of great fertility, covered with the most valuable kinds of timber; but these are generally liable to overflow, and have not been reclaimed, though protection against overflow is perfectly practicable. These bottom lands are sometimes four or five miles wide, with a soil of great depth, and there are probably more aeres of rich unreclaimed swamp lands in middle and southern Georgia than the whole of the kingdom of Holland. They require capital and labor, but when reclaimed will bring more than a bale of cotton to the acre, or may be converted into beautiful meadows of herdsgrass or timothy. This description of land would probably not now command more