by the debtor, i.e., to the extent of the pecuniary value of the performance originally owing (litis aestimatio). Pomp.: Quod quis ex culpa sua damnum sentit, non intelligitur damnum sentire.-D. 50, 17, 203.1 Paul. Nemo damnum facit, nisi qui id fecit, quod facere ius non habet.—1. 151 eod.2 The damage that a person suffers may (1) either diminish the already existing property in some constituent part,-Positive damage (damnum emergens), or preclude augmentation of the property, -Negative damage, intercepted augmentation (lucrum cessans). Paul. amisisse dicimur quod aut consequi potuimus aut erogare cogimur.-l. 33 pr., D. ad 1. Aq. 9, 2.3 Id. Et sive quid amniserit vel lucratus nou sit, restitutio facienda est, etiamsi non ex bonis quid amissum sit.-D. 4, 6, 27.* (2) In both cases the damage may either be the direct result of the harmful event, or that which comes about through special individual circumstances (damnum directum-indirectum). Id. Proinde si servum occidisti, quem sub poena tradendum promisi, utilitas venit in hoc iudicium.-Item causae corpori cohaerentes aestimantur, si quis ex comoedis, aut symphoniacis, aut gemellis, aut quadriga, aut ex pari mularum unum vel unam occiderit: non solum enim per 1 When any man suffers damage in consequence of his own fault, he is not considered to suffer damage. 2 No one does damage save a person who did that which he has no right to do. 3 We are said to have lost what we either could have obtained or are obliged to expend. And whether it be that a man has lost something or has not gained an advantage, restitution must be made, even if nothing has been lost from the property itself. BOOK III. Pt. I. Ch. II. -- L L BOOK III. Pt. I. Ch. 11. empti corporis aestimatio facienda est, sed et eius ratio haberi debet, quo cetera corpora depretiata sunt.-1. 22, D. ad 1. Aq.' Ulp. Inde Neratius scribit, si servus heres institutus occisus sit, etiam hereditatis aestimationem venire.-1. 23 pr. eod. GROUNDS OF COMPENSATION FOR DAMAGE. $108. DOLUS AND CULPA. The obligation to atone for damage by reason of the tort supposes blame for the latter as attaching to the wrongdoer (culpa in the wider sense): the harmful result of the act or forbearance must admit of being a D. 9, 2, 5, 1; altogether imputed to the author." This culpability may consist either Gai. iii. 211. (1) in a positive intention directly contemplating the tort (dolus, deceit), or, (2) in negative conduct, as regards the tort, which in violation of such person's duty leaves out of sight the possibility, foreseen or which could be foreseen, or probability of the illegal result of his act or forbearance (culpa in the narrower sense). Under the notion of Culpa falls both the lack of dutiful care and attention on the part of a person who has altogether failed to consider the illegal result of his act or forbearance, although this could have been foreseen (unconscious negligence, remiss 1 If, accordingly, you have killed a slave whom I, under a penalty, have promised to deliver, his usefulness comes into account in respect of this action.-Likewise bodily properties arc at the same time appraised, e.g., if any one has killed an actor, or a singing-boy, or a twin, or a horse from a team of four, or one of a pair of mules. For not merely must we put a value upon the body slain, but account must be taken of how much the rest have lost in value. 2 Ner. therefore writes that if a slave has been killed who was instituted an heir, the value of the inheritance also comes into account. ness, thoughtlessness) a and wantonness and levity Book III. (luxuria, lascivia) of him who incurs the blame of Pt. L Ch. II. the act, in spite of his having foreseen the possible" See Campbell, illegal result of it (conscious culpa). 'Law of Negligence' (2nd ed.), ¿See generally Paul. Si putator ex arbore ramum cum deii- PP. 2-3. ceret, hominem praetereuntem occidit, ita tenetur, Austin, i. 441-3 (Stud's ed. si is in publicum decidat nec ille proclamarit, ut pp. 211-12); casus eius evitari possit. Sed Mucius etiam dixit, Markby, ss. 679-685. si in privato idem accidisset, posse de culpa agi: culpam autem esse, quod cum a diligente provideri potuerit, non esset provisum, aut tum denuntiatum esset, cum periculum evitari non possit. . . . Quodsi nullum iter erit, dolum dumtaxat praestare debet, ne immittat in eum, quem viderit transeuntem: nam culpa ab eo exigenda non est, cum divinare non potuerit, an per eum locum aliquis transiturus sit.-D. 9, 2, 31.' For torts induced by Dolus a person is always responsible. Culpa, as ground of the obligation to make amends for damage, comes into account only (1) in respect of indirect damage to property by the wrongdoer, which engenders an independent obligatio ex delicto (damnum iniuria datum ex 1. Aquilia) the so-called 'Aquilian culpa.' It here § 133consists in illegal positive action (culpa in faciendo), 1 If a wood-cutter by throwing down a branch from a tree kills a passer-by, he is only liable if the branch fall upon the public road and he has not called out, that its fall might be avoided. But Muc. says, besides, that proceedings could be taken for the negligence even if the same thing had happened on private ground, for that negligence consists in the non-exercise of precaution when such could have been taken by a careful person, or if notice was given when the danger could not be avoided. . . . But if there shall be no road there, compensation ought to be given for bad intention alone, so that the man do not cast the branch on one he sees passing by; for negligence does not attach to him, since he could not foresee whether any one was about to pass through such place. с which already exhibits itself as the violation of the general duty of citizens 'alterum non laedere.' (2) In obligatory relations, in which some one violates the special positive duty incumbent upon him to take some course of action on behalf of another, or to avert damage (diligentia, custodia). Here the Culpa may consist not merely in positive action, but also in forbearance (culpa in non faciendo, so-called 'extra-Aquilian culpa ').a Id. Illud nulla pactione effici potest, ne dolus praestetur.-Pacta quae turpem causam continent, non sunt observanda: veluti si paciscar, ne furti agam vel iniuriarum, si feceris; sed post admissa haec pacisci possumus.-D. 2, 14, 27, §§ 3-4.1 : Ulp. ait Iulianus, tutores nisi bonam fidem in administratione praestiterint, damnari debere, quamvis testamento comprehensum sit, ut aneclogisti essent.-D. 26, 7, 5, 7.2 Marcian. Si servus vetitus est a testatore rationes reddere, non hoc consequitur, ut ne quod apud eum sit reddat et lucri faciat, sed ne scrupulosa inquisitio fiat, hoc est ut neglegentiae ratio non habeatur, sed tantum fraudum.-1. 119, D. de leg. i. 30.3 1 It is impossible to contract oneself out of making compensation for dolus. . . . No heed is to be given to agreements which contain a disgraceful reason; for example, if I engage not to take proceedings upon a theft or for insults inflicted, if you shall commit such; . . . but after the commission thereof, we can enter into such engagements. 2 Jul. says that guardians must be condemned if they do not evince good faith in their management, although a provision be contained in the testament that they should not be accountable. If a slave has by a testator been directed to render no account, the effect of this is, not that he should not account for and should profit by what is in his hands, but that no strict investigation be made, that is, that account be not taken of remissness, but only of fraud. The so-called 'Aquilian culpa'-just as dolus and casus-admits of no gradation. a BOOK III. Pt. I. Ch. 11. Ulp. In lege Aquilia et levissima culpa venit." « Cf. Campbell, 1. 43 pr., D. ad l. Aq.' In contractual culpa, however, are distinguished two degrees, answering to the greater or less diligentia to p. 23. supra; Brown, s. be put forth culpa lata' and 'culpa levis.' Since Campbell, ubi 'culpa lata' in respect of responsibility is generally cf. placed on the same footing as dolus, it is ordinarily 'Negligence." comprehended under this, so that culpa in juxtaposition, and in contrast, with dolus denotes' culpa levis' (omnis culpa). Paul. Magna negligentia culpa est, magna The standard by which the degree of culpa is determined is (1) an abstract, absolute, objective culpa. According to it, he is in culpa lata whose conduct is not marked by diligentia cuiusvis hominis,' and he in culpa levi who fails in diligentia boni ac diligentis patrisfamilias." : Ulp. Lata culpa est nimia negligentia, id est non intelligere, quod omnes intelligunt.—l. 213, § 2, D. de V. S.1 Alf. Si vendita insula combusta esset, cum incendium sine culpa fieri non possit, quid iuris sit? Respondit . . . si venditor eam diligentiam adhibuisset in insula custodienda, quam debent homines frugi et diligentes praestare, si quid ... 1 In the 1. Aquilia the very slightest negligence comes into account. Great neglect is culpa; great culpa is dolus. 3 The negligence that comes nearest to dolus represents dolus. Gross culpa is excessive negligence-that is, not to know what all people know. I, 5? |