A General REFLECTION.

Though we have shewn that these Propositions Exclusive, Exceptive, &c. may be contradicted several ways, yet it is as certain, that when they are barely denied, without any farther Explanation, the Negation falls naturally upon the Exclusion or the Exception, or the Comparison, or the Alteration, denoted by the words of beginning or ceasing. Therefore if any one believed that Epicurus did not place chief happiness in Bodily pleasure, and it should be said to him, that only Epicurus placed chief happiness in Pleasure, if the other barely denied it without adding any other thing, it would be in full declaration of his Sense, because a Man might have reason to believe upon that bare Negation, that he still believed that Epicurus placed his chief happiness in pleasure, but that he was not the only person who was of that opinion.

Also if a person should ask me, knowing the integrity of a Judge, whether he still sold Justice? I could not answer barely, No.

For that such a No, would only signify that he did not still sell Justice; but at the same time the other was left to believe, that he had formerly done it.

Which shews us that there are some Propositions, to which it would be unjust to require a bare answer, by Yes, or No; for that when they include two Senses, a true answer cannot be given but by explaining both the one and the other.

CHAP. IX.

Observations to discover the Predicates and Subjects in Propositions, expressed after a less usual manner.

CERTAINLY it is a defect of vulgar Logic, that it does not accustom young beginners to understand the nature of Propositions or Arguments, but according to the order and forms which. are used in the Schools, which are frequently different from what we find in the Writings of others, whether in Oratory, Morality, or any other of the Sciences.

And therefore they have no other Idea of a Subject or an Attribute, but that the one is the first Term of the Proposition, and the other the latter. And of Universality and Particularity, but that there is in the one (All) or (None), and in the other (Some), whereas all these things are subject to frequent Errors; and it requires Judgment to discern these things in several Propositions. Let us begin with the Subject and Attribute.

The only and true Rule is to observe by the Sense, of what a thing is affirmed, and what is affirmed is this, for the first is always the Subject, and the latter the Predicate, however disposed in order.

Thus there is nothing more common than these sorts of Propositions; It is a shameful thing to be a slave to Lust. Where by the Sense it is visible, that a shameful thing is that which is affirmed, and consequently the Predicate; and to be a slave to Lust, is that which is affirmed of the thing, that it is a shameful thing, and consequently the Subject. Likewise in St. Paul, according to the Latin, Est questus magnus Pietas cum sufficientia, whereas the true order should be, Godliness, with sufficiency, is great gain.

Likewise in this verse.

Happy the Man that knows the cause of things.

Happy is the Predicate, all the rest is the Subject.

But the Subject and the Attribute are yet more difficult to be found out in complex Propositions. And we have already shewn that sometimes there is no discerning, but by the consequence of the Discourse, and the Author's Intention, which is the chief Proposition, and which the Incident in the two propositions.

But besides what has been said, we may yet observe, that in complex propositions, where the first part is only the Incident Proposition, and the latter is the principal; as in the Major and Conclusion of this Argument,

God Commands us to honour Kings.
Lewis the XIVth is King.

Therefore God commands us to honour Lewis the XIVth..

Here the Verb Active is to be changed into the Passive, to find out the true Subject of this principal Proposition. For it is plain when I argue after this manner, that my principal intention in the Major, is to affirm something of Kings, Whence I may conclude that we are to honour Lewis the XIVth. And therefore what I affirm of the Command of God is only an incident Proposition which confirms this Affirmative, that Kings are to be honoured. Whence it follows that Kings is the Subject of the Major, and Lewis the XIV. the Subject of the Conclusion. Though if we consider things only superficially, both the one and the other. seem to be no more than a part of the Attribute.

These Propositions are also frequent in our Language. It is a folly to listen to Flatterers. It is the Hail that falls. It is God

who has purchased us; But the Sense sufficiently demonstrates, that to replace these Propositions in their natural order, they ought to be thus expressed.

To listen to Flatterers is a folly.
It is the hail that falls.

He that has purchased us is God.

And this almost Universal in all Propositions that begin with It is, and where afterwards follows (who) or (that) to have the Attribute at the beginning, and the Subject at the end. And let this suffice for once, to let you see, that the examples produced demonstrate, that we are to judge by the Sense, and not by the order of the words. And this is necessary to be known, that we may not be deceived in taking those for false Syllogisms, that are really true. For that want of discerning the Subject and the Attribute in the Propositions, we believe them contrary when they are conformable to the Rules.

CHAP. X.

Other Observations to know whether the Propositions are Universal or Particular.

SOME Observations of the same nature, and no less useful, may be made of Particularity and Universality.

1. OBSERVATION.

We must distinguish Universality into two sorts. The one may be called Metaphysical the other Moral.

I call Metaphysical Universality, when the Universality is perfect and without exception; as, every Man is living, which admits no exception.

I call Moral Universality, that which admits some exception: For in Moral things it suffices, that things are so for the most part. As St. Paul both cites and proves,

The Cretans are always Liars, evil Beasts, Slow-bellies.

Or as the same Apostle alleges in another place,

All seek their own things, not the things of Jesus Christ;
Or according to that of Horace,

All Musicians have this Vice, &c.

Or according to the usual Phrases, All Women love to chat.

In all these Propositions it suffices that it be so for the most part, neither is any thing to be concluded strictly.

For as all these Propositions are not so general, but that they admit exceptions, so they may render the conclusion false. For it could not be particularly inferred, that any Cretan was a Liar, or an evil Beast, though the Apostle cites in general that Verse of one of their own Poets.

The Cretans are always Liars, evil Beasts, and Slow-bellies.

For that some of that Island might not be guilty of those vices which were common to others.

Therefore the moderation to be observed in these Conclusions, which are only morally Universal, is on the one side, to draw from thence with great judgment particular Conclusions; and on the other side, not to contradict them, nor to reject them as false; though we may oppose certain Instances wherein they may stray from the Truth, but to be satisfied, if they may be extended from others beyond their just limits, that they ought not to be taken too rigorously according to the Letter.

2. OBSERVATION.

There are some Propositions that ought to pass for Metaphysically Universal, though they may admit of Exceptions, that is, when those Exceptions are exotic, and such, as according to common use, are not comprehended in those Universal Terms. As when I say, All Men have two Arms. This Proposition ought to pass for true, according to ordinary use. And it would be but mere brangling to oppose against it, that there have been Monsters who were Men, though they had four Arms. It being plain that there was nothing intended concerning Monsters, in these general Propositions; and that the only meaning of the Assertion was, that according to the order of Nature, all Men had two Arms.

In like manner it may be said, that all Men make use of words to express their thoughts; but that all Men do not make use of writing. Nor would it be a rational Objection to contradict the truth of the Proposition, by instancing dumb People, because it is evident, though the sense be not expressed in words, that it was not meant of such as had a natural impediment to make use of sounds, either because they could not understand them, as those that are deaf; or because they could not utter them, like those that are dumb.

3. OBSERVATION.

There are other Propositions which are not Universal, but only because they arc to be understood of the single species of Genuses,

and not of the Individuals of Species. Thus it is said, that all Creatures were saved in Noah's Ark, because that some of every Species were saved. Jesus Christ rebuked the Pharisees for taking the Tenths of all Herbs; not that they took the Tenths of all Herbs that were taken in the world; but because that there was no sort of Pot-herb of which they did not take the Tithes. Thus said St. Paul, I endeavour to please all Men in all things; that is, I endeavour to frame myself to the condition and humour of all sorts of Persons, Jews, Christians, Gentiles; though he did not strive to please his Prosecutors, that were so numerous. Thus it is said, a Man has passed all Offices: that is all sorts of Offices suitable to his condition.

4. OBSERVATION.

There are Propositions that are not Universal, but only as the Subject ought to be taken, as restranied by one part of the Attribute. I say by one part; for it would be ridiculous to think it should be restrained by the whole Attribute. As if any one should affirm this Proposition to be true; All Men are just, because he gave no other Explication of it, than that all just Men are just. But when the Attribute is Complex, and consists of two parts, as in this Proposition; All Men are just by the Grace of Jesus Christ. Then we may with reason affirm the term of just to be sub-intellected in the Subject, though it be not expressed. For then it is clear that the meaning of the Proposition is, that all Men who are just, are not just but by the Grace of Jesus Christ. And so this Proposition is true in all respects; though it may seem to be false, if we consider no more than what is expressed in the Subject; there being so many Men who are wicked and sinful, and by consequence have not been justified by the Grace of Jesus Christ. There are a great number of Propositions in Scripture, which are to be taken in this sense; and among the rest that of St. Paul, As all died in Adam, so all shall live again in Jesus Christ. For it is certain, that a great number of Pagans that died in their incredulity, shall not live again in Jesus Christ. And that they shall have no part in the Life of Glory, of which St. Paul speaks.

There are also several Propositions which are not morally Universal, but in this manner. The French are good Soldiers; the Hollanders are good Seamen; The Flemings are good Painters; The Italians are good Comedians. As much as to say, that the French who are Soldiers, are good Soldiers, and so of the rest.