In the statutes of Edward I. it is enacted that every pillory or stretch-neck should be made of convenient strength so that execution might be done on offenders without peril of their bodies. It was customary to shave the heads wholly or partially and the beards of men, and to cut off the hair and even in extreme cases to shave the heads of female culprits. Some of the offences punished in England by the pillory will be found enumerated in the statute 51 Hen. III. c. 6 (1266), comprehending chiefly indictable offences not amounting to felony (commonly called misdemeanours), such as forestalling and regrating, using deceitful weights and measures, perjury or subornation of perjury, libel, seditious writings, &c. Later on, the punishment of the pillory was ordained for courtesans, common scolds, and brawlers and other like delinquents both male and female, and in the later years of its existence, notably during the 17th and 18th centuries, it was much resorted to as a punishment for political offenders, who on some occasions experienced the roughest treatment at the hands of the mob, ill-usage resulting in some instances on record even in death. The intention of setting a criminal in the pillory was that he should become infamous and known as such afterwards by the spectators. Examples have not been wanting, however, in which much sympathy has been both felt and expressed by the populace for the individual subjected to this punishment. The duration of the punishment was usually assigned at the discretion of the judge who passed the sentence, though sometimes it was fixed by law. The form of the judgment was that the defendant should "be set in and upon the pillory"; he was consequently said to stand in the pillory, not at it.

to another, -a lodesman (Ang. Sax. lád-man, a leader) being a pilot for harbour and river duty. During the period of his charge the whole responsibility of the safe conduct of the vessel devolves upon the pilot. Most systems of maritime law have made the employment of pilots compulsory, though this does not usually apply to ships of war. One effect of neglect or refusal on the part of the master of a ship to take a pilot is to discharge the insurers from their liability. Excepting under extraordinary circumstances (such as where it is evident that he is acting rashly or is intoxicated, or is palpably incompetent) a master would not be justified in interfering with the pilot in his proper vocation. In England, societies or corporations have long been established for the appointment and control of pilots in particular localities; and of these the Trinity House, London, owing to the number of the pilots under its control, and the large extent of its jurisdiction, may be deemed the principal. The laws relating to pilotage were consolidated by 48 Geo. III. c. 104 (1808), which was amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 125 (1825); further regulations were made by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 129 (1853), which incorporated the Cinque Ports with the Trinity House pilots; and all existing regulations on the subject were embodied in the Merchant Shipping Act 17 & 18 Vict. c. 104 (1854), already referred to, from which pilotage authorities within the United Kingdom derive their jurisdiction, and which regulates their powers, the licensing of pilots and their rights, privileges, liabilities, and remuneration (Maude and Pollock, Law of Mer chant Shipping, 1861).

The laws of pilotage in the United States are regulated by the individual States according to the Acts of Congress. PILOT-FISH (Naucrates ductor), a pelagic fish of the family of Horse-Mackerels, well known to sailors from its peculiar habit of keeping company with ships and large fishes, especially sharks. It occurs in all tropical and sub-tropical seas, and is common in the Mediterranean, but becomes scarcer in higher latitudes. In summer pilots will follow ships as far north as the south coast of England into port, where they are generally speedily caught. This habit was known to the ancients, who describe the

Pilot fish,

PILOT. The English Merchant Shipping Act of 1854 (17 & 18 Vict. c. 104) defines a pilot as being a person duly licensed by any pilotage authority to conduct ships to which he does not belong as one of the crew. Pilots are in fact taken on board to superintend the steering of the vessel, where the navigation is difficult and dangerous, in consequence of their special knowledge of particular waters; and it is to this class alone that the term now applies, whereas in early times the pilot was the steersman, or the individual who conducted the navigation of a ship across the ocean and out of sight of land. The word seems to be of Dutch origin, and to mean primarily a person who conducts a ship by the sounding line (peillood). Cowell (Law Dict.), describing lodemanage, speaks of it as

the Mediterranean regarded it therefore as a sacred fish, That the pilot follows sharks is an observation, of much later date, which first appears in works of travel of the 17th century, the writers asserting that the shark never seizes the pilot-fish, and that the latter is of great use to its big companion in conducting it and showing it the way to its food. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether the pilot's connexion with a shark serves a more special purpose than its temporary attachment to a ship. It accompanies both on account of the supply of food which it derives from them, picking up the crustaceans, cirripeds,

contemplated to wholly abolish compulsory pilotage, releasing owners 1 In a measure before parliament in 1884, but not passed, it was or masters of ships not employing pilots from all pilotage dues or rates and from any penalty for not employing a pilot.

or other marine animals swarming about the ship's bottom or parasitic on the shark, offal thrown overboard, or smaller pieces of flesh which are left unnoticed by the shark when it tears its prey. The pilot, therefore, stands to both in the relation of a so-called "commensal," like the Echeneis or sucking-fish, whose habits are in some respects identical with those of the pilot, and which is frequently found associated with it. All observers, however, agree that neither the pilot nor the sucker is ever attacked by the shark. The pilot attains to a length of about 12 inches. In the shape of its body it resembles a mackerel, but is rather shorter, especially in the head, and covered with small scales. A sharp keel runs along the middle of each side of the tail. The first dorsal fin consists of a few short spines not connected by a membrane; the second dorsal and the anal are composed of numerous rays. The teeth, which occupy the jaws, vomer, and palatine bones, are all small, in villiform bands. The coloration of the pilot, renders it conspicuous at a distance; on a bluish groundcolour from five to seven dark-blue or violet cross-bands traverse the body from the back to the belly. The pilot-fish spawns in the open sea, and its fry is constantly caught in the tow-net. But young pilot-fish differ considerably from the adult, having the spines of the first dorsal connected by a membrane, and some bones of the. head armed with projecting spines. spines. These little fishes were therefore long considered to be a distinct genus, Nauclerus.

PILPAY. See BIDPAI, vol. iii. p. 666.

PILSEN, the second town of Bohemia, lies at the confluence of the Radbusa and the Mies, 50 miles to the south-west of Prague. It consists of the town proper, which is regularly built and surrounded with promenades on the site of the old ramparts, and of three suburbs. The most prominent buildings are the Gothic church of St Bartholomew, said to date from 1292; the Renaissance town-house, containing an interesting armoury; the new real school; and the German and Bohemian theatres. The staple article of manufacture and commerce is beer, of which about 6,000,000 gallons are brewed here annually. Other industrial products are machinery, enamelled tinware, leather, alum, paper, earthenware, stoves, and spirits, while a tolerably brisk trade is carried on in wool, feathers, cattle, and horses. In the neighbourhood are several coal-pits, iron-works, and glass-works, as well as large deposits of kaolin. The four annual fairs have lost much of their former importance. The population in 1880 was 38,883, consisting of Germans and Czechs in nearly equal proportions.

Pilsen first appears in history in 976, as the scene of a battle between Otho I. and Henry V., duke of Bavaria, and it became a town in 1272. During the Hussite wars it resisted several sieges, but it was taken by Mansfeld in 1618. Wallenstein fixed his headquarters at Pilsen in 1633-34; and it was the principal scene of the alleged conspiracy which cost him his life. The first printing press in Bohemia was set up at Pilsen in 1468.

PIMENTO, also called ALLSPICE (from a supposed combination of various flavours) and JAMAICA PEPPER, is the dried immature fruit of Eugenia Pimenta or Pimenta officinalis, an evergreen tree about 30 feet high belonging to the natural order Myrtacea. It is indigenous in the West India Islands, growing on limestone hills near the sea. The spice derives its name from pimienta, the Spanish word for pepper, which was given to it by the early explorers of the New World from its resemblance to peppercorns. The allspice of commerce is furnished wholly by the island of Jamaica; and all attempts to cultivate the tree where it is not found growing spontaneously have hitherto failed. The so-called pimento walks or natural plantations from which the pimento is collected are formed by cutting down other growth upon land where

the tree grows naturally, and thus allowing it to multiply freely. The berries are gathered in July and August, when of full size, but still unripe,-the small branches bearing fruit being broken off and dried in the sun and air for some days, when the stalks are removed and the berries are ready for packing. These owe their aromatic properties to an essential oil, of which they yield on distillation from 3 to 4 per cent. This oil has a specific gravity of 1037, deflects the ray of polarized light 2' to the left when examined in a column of 50 millimetres, and has substantially the same composition as oil of cloves, although differing in flavour. The berries also contain a tannin (giving a black colour with ferric salts), starch, and a minute quantity of an alkaloid which, according to Dragendorff, has somewhat the odour of conia. The chief use of pimento is as a spice. The oil and distilled water are used to a limited extent in medicine to disguise the taste of nauseous drugs, and the cil is also used in perfuming soaps. The yield of some trees is said to reach as much as 150 b of fresh or 112 b of dried berries. The highest export reached of late years. was 6,857,830 bin 1870-71, valued at £28,574. In 1877-78 it was 6,195,109 b. About two-thirds of the produce goes to England, and one-third to the United States. The value in the London market is about 4d. to 6d. per lb.

The fruit of an allied species, Pimenta acris, Wight, distinguished by the calyx being crowned with teeth, is sometimes met with in commerce. The bay rum so much used as a toilet article in the United States is a tincture flavoured with the oil of the fruit and leaves of P. acris, which is commonly known as the bayberry tree.

The

PIN. A pin is a small spike, usually of metal, with a bulbed head, or some other arrangement for preventing the spike passing entirely through the cloth or other material it is used for fastening together. In one form or another pins are of the highest antiquity, and it may be assumed that their use is coeval with human dress of any kind, the earliest form doubtless being a natural thorn, such as is still often seen fastening the dresses of peasant women in upper Egypt. Pins of bronze, and bronze brooches in which the pin is the essential feature, are of common occurrence among the remains of the bronze age.. Brooches and pins on which considerable artistic ingenuity was lavished were universally used among the civilized nations of antiquity (see BROOCH, vol. iv. p. 369). ordinary domestic pin had become in the 15th century an article of sufficient importance in England to warrant legislative notice, as in 1483 the importation of pins was prohibited by statute. In 1540 Queen Catherine received pins from France, and again in 1543 an Act was passed providing that "no person shall put to sale any pinnes but only such as shall be double headed, and have the heads soldered fast to the shank of the pinnes, well smoothed, the shank well shapen, the points well and round filed, canted, and sharpened." At that time pins. of good quality were made of brass; but a large proportion of those against which the legislative enactment was directed were made of iron wire blanched and passed as brass pins. To a large extent the supply of pins in England was received from France till about 1626, in which year the manufacture was introduced into Gloucestershire by John Tilsby. cestershire by John Tilsby. His business flourished so well that he soon gave employment to 1500 persons, and Stroud pins attained a high reputation. In 1636 the pinmakers of London formed a corporation, and the manufacture was subsequently established at Bristol and Birmingham, the latter town ultimately becoming the principal centre of the industry. So early as 1775 the attention of the enterprising colonists in Carolina was drawn to the manufacture by the offer of prizes for the first native-made pins and needles. At a later date several

pin-making machines were invented in the United States. During the war of 1812, when the price of pins rose enormously, the manufacture was actually started, but the industry was not fairly successful till about the year 1836. Previous to this an American, Mr Lemuel W. Wright of Massachusetts, had in 1824 secured in England a patent for a pin-making machine, which established the industry on its present basis.

The old form of pin, which has become obsolete only within the memory of middle-aged persons, consisted of a shank with a separate head of fine wire twisted round and secured to it. The formation and attachment of this head were the principal points to which inventive ingenuity was directed. The old method of heading involved numerous operations, which had to be expeditiously accomplished, and, notwithstanding the expertness of the workers, the result was frequently unsatisfactory. Fine wire for heads was first wound on a lathe round a spit the exact circumference of the pin shanks to be headed. In this way a long elastic spiral was produced which had next to be cut into heads, each consisting of two complete turns of the spiral. These heads were softened by annealing and made into a heap for the heading boy, whose duty was to thrust a number of shanks into the heap and let as many as might be fit themselves with heads. Such shanks as came out thus headed were passed to the header, who with a falling block and die arrangement compressed together shank and head of such a number as his die-block was fitted for. All the other operations of straightening the wire, cutting, pointing, &c., were separately performed, and these numerous details connected with the production of a common pin were seized on by Adam Smith as one of the most remarkable illustrations of the advantages of the division of labour.

The beautiful automatic machinery by which pins are now made of single pieces of wire is an invention of the present century. In 1817 a communication was made at the Patent Office by Seth Hunt, describing a machine for making pins with "head, shaft, and point in one entire piece." By this machine a suitable length of wire was cut off and held in a die till a globular head was formed on one end by compression, and the other end was pointed by the revolution around it of a roughened steel wheel. This-machine does not appear to have come into use; but in 1824 Wright patented the pin-making apparatus above referred to as the parent form of the machinery now employed. An extension for five years, from 1838, of Wright's patent, with certain additions and improvements, was secured by Henry Shuttleworth and Daniel Foote Tayler, and in the hands of Tayler's firm in Birmingham the development of the machine has principally taken place. In a pin-making machine as now used wire of suitable gauge running off a reel is drawn in and straightened by passing between straightening pins or studs set in a table. When a pin length has entered it is caught by lateral jaws, beyond which enough of the end projects to form a pin-head. Against this end a steel punch advances and compresses the metal by a die arrangement into the form of a head. The pin length is immediately cut off and the headed piece drops into a slit sufficiently wide to pass the wire through but retain the head. The pins are consequently suspended by the head while their projecting points are held against a revolving file-cut steel roller, along the face of which they are carried by gravitation till they fall out at the extremity well-pointed pins. The pins are next purified by boiling in weak beer; and, so cleaned, they are arranged in a copper pan in layers alternating with layers of grained tin. The contents of the pan are covered with water over which a quantity of argol (bitartrate of potash) is sprinkled, and after boiling for several hours the brass pins are coated with a thin deposit of tin, which gives them their silvery appearance. They are then washed in clean water and dried by revolving in a barrel, mixed with dry bran or fine sawdust, from which they are winnowed finished pins. A large proportion of the pins sold are stuck into paper by an automatic machine not less ingenious than the pin-making machine itself. Mourning pins are made of iron wire, finished by immersing in black japan and drying in a stove. A considerable variety of pins, including the ingeniously coiled, bent, and twisted nursery safety pin, ladies hair pins, &c., are also made by automatic machinery. The sizes of ordinary pins range from the 3-inch stout blanket pin down to the finest slender gilt pins used by entomologists, 4500 of which weigh about an ounce. A few years ago it was estimated that in the United Kingdom there were made daily 50,000,000 pins, of which 37,000,000 were produced in Birmingham, and the weight of brass and iron wire then annually consumed was stated at 1275 tons, of which one-eighth part was iron wire. The annual value of the whole British trade was stated at £222,000. At the same time the consumption of wire in pin-making in the United States was estimated to be from 350 to 500 tons per annum, the value of the trade being £112,000. (J. PA.)

PINDAR, the greatest lyric poet of ancient Greece whose work is represented by large remains, was born

|

| about 522 B.C., being thus some thirty-four years younge. than Simonides of Ceos. His father's name was Dai-" phantus; his birthplace the village of Cynoscephala near Thebes in Boeotia. The traditions of his family, which claimed a proud descent, have left their impress on his poetry, and are not without importance for a correct estimate of his relation to his contemporaries. The clan of the geide-tracing their line from the hero Ægeus belonged to the "Cadmean" element of Thebes, i.e., to the elder nobility whose supposed date went back to the days of the founder Cadmus. A branch of the Theban days of the founder Cadmus. geide had been settled in Achæan times at Amycle in the valley of the Eurotas (Pind. Isthm. vi. 14), and after the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus had apparently been adopted by the Spartans into one of the three Dorian to colonize the tribes. The Spartan Egeide helped island of Thera (Pyth. v. 68). Another branch of the race was settled at Cyrene in Africa; and Pindar tells how his Ægid clansmen at Thebes "showed honour" to Cyrene as often as they kept the festival of the Carneia (Pyth. v. 75). Pindar is to be conceived, then, as standing within the circle of those families for whom the heroic myths were domestic records. He had a personal link with the memories which memories which everywhere were most cherished by Dorians, no less than with those which appealed to men of "Cadmean or of Achæan stock. And the wide ramifications of the Ægeide throughout Hellas rendered it peculiarly fitting that a member of that illustrious clan should celebrate the glories of many cities in verse which was truly Panhellenic.

Pindar is said to have received his first lessons in flute- Life playing from one Scopelinus at Thebes, and afterwards to have studied at Athens under the musicians Apollodorus (or Agathocles) and Lasus of Hermione. In his youth, as the story went, he was defeated in a poetical contest by the Theban Corinna-who, in reference to his use of Theban mythology, is said to have advised him "to sow with the hand, not with the sack." There is an extant fragment in which Corinna reproves another Theban poetess, Myrto, "for that she, a woman, contended with Pindar" (öri Barà povo eßa Ilidάpoio Toт pv)—a sentiment, it may be remarked, which does not well accord with the story of Corinna's own victory. The facts that stand out from these meagre traditions are that Pindar was precocious and laborious. Preparatory labour of a somewhat severe and complex kind was, indeed, indispensable for the Greek lyric poet of that age. Lyric composition demanded studies not only in metre but in music, and in the adaptation of both to the intricate movements of the choral dance (opnoTLK). Several passages. in Pindar's extant odes glance at the long technical development of Greek lyric poetry before his time, and at the various elements of art which the lyrist was required to temper into a harmonious whole (see, e.g., Ol. iii. 8, vi. 91, ix. 1, xiv. 15, xiii. 18; Pyth. xii. 23, &c.). The earliest ode which can be dated (Pyth. x.) belongs to the twentieth year of Pindar's age (502 B.C.); the latest (Olymp. v.) to the seventieth (452 B.C.). He visited the court of Hiero at Syracuse; Theron, the despot of Acragas, also entertained him; and his travels perhaps included Cyrene. Tradition notices the special closeness of his relations with Delphi: "He was greatly honoured by all the Greeks, because he was so beloved of Apollo that he even received a share of the offerings; and at the sacrifices the priest would cry aloud that Pindar come in to the feast of the god."1 He is said to have died at Argos, at the age of seventy-nine, in 443 B.C..

1 Πινδάρου γένος, in ed. Αld.: ἐτιμήθη δὲ σφόδρα ὑπὸ πάντων τῶν Ἑλλήνων διὰ τὸ ὑπὸ τοῦ ̓Απόλλωνος οὕτω φιλεῖσθαι ὡς καὶ μερίδα τῶν προσφερομένων τῷ θεῷ λαμβάνειν, καὶ τὸν ἱερέα βοᾶν ἐν ταῖς θυσίαις Πίνδαρον ἐπὶ τὸ δεῖπνον τοῦ θεοῦ.