III. Præterea, Novatione tollitur obligatio; veluti si id, quod tibi Seius debebat, à Titio stipulatus sis. Nam interventu novæ persone nova nascitur obligatio, et prima tollitur, translata in posteriorem: adeò ut interdùm, licèt posterior stipulatio inutilis sit, tamen prima novationis jure tollatur; veluti si id, quod tu Titio debes, à pupillo sinè tutoris auctoritate stipulatus fuerit; quo casu res amittitur: nam et prior debitor liberatur, et posterior obligatio nulla est. Non idem juris est, si à servo quis fuerit stipulatus: nam tunc prior perindè obligatus manet, ac si postea nullus stipulatus fuisset. Sed, si eadem. persona sit, à quâ postea stipuleris, ita demum novatio fit, si quid in posteriore stipulatione novi sit; fortè si conditio aut dies aut fidejussor adjiciatur aut detrahatur. Quod autem diximus, si conditio adjiciatur, novationem fieri, sic intelligi oportet, ut ita dicamus factam novationem, si conditio extiterit; alioqui, si defecerit, durat prior obligatio. Sed, cum hoc quidem inter veteres constabat, tunc fieri novationem, cum novandi animo in secundam obligationem itum fuerat, per hoc autem dubium erat, quando novandi animo vitetur hoc fieri, et quasdam de hoc præsumptiones alii in aliis casibus introducebant, ideò nostra processit constitutio, quæ apertissimè definivit, tunc solum novationem prioris

§3. An obligation is also dissolved by novation; as when you stipulaté with TITIUS to receive from him what is due to you from SEIUS. For; by the intervention of a new debtor, a fresh obligation arises, by which the former is discharged, and transferred to the latter. Sometimes, although the latter be of no force, yet the prior contract is discharged by the mere act of novation: as if TITIUS should stipulate to re ceive what I owe him, from a pupil without authority of his tutor; here the debt is lost, because the first debtor is freed, and the second obli gation is void: but it is not so man contract by stipulation with a slave, (intending a novation ;) for then the first debtor remains bound, as if there had been no second stipulation. And, if you stipulate from the same person a second time, a novation arises, if any thing new be contained in the latter stipulation § as a condition, a day, or a bondsman added, or taken away. But when a condition only is added, nos vation does not take place, till the event happen; and, till then, the prior obligation continues. The an cient lawyers held that a novation arose, when a second contract was intended to dissolve a former; but it was always difficult to know with what intent the second obligation was made; and for want of posi tive proof, opinions were founded on presumptions, arising from the cir

*

II. Furtum autem vel à furvo, Id est, nigro, dictum est, quod clàm et obscurè fiat, vel plerùmque nocte: vel à fraude: vel à ferendo, id est, auferendo vel à Græco sermone, quod gas appellant fures: imo et Graci, απο το φέρειν, φωρας dixerint.

§ 2. The word furtum [theft] is derived from furvum ; [black or dark;] because theft is committed privately, and generally in the night:or from fraus [fraud] »

or from ferendo, i. e. (auferendo) and denotes a substraction, or taking away. Or perhaps from the Greek; for the Greeks call fures, Owgus; from Qige, to take away.

§ III. Furtorum autem duo sunt genera; manifestum et nec manifestum: nam conceptum et oblatum species potius actionis sunt furto cohærentes, quam genera furtorum, sicut inferius apparebit. Manifestus fur est, quem Græci ET' «uroQw/w appellant: nec solùm is, qui in ipso furto deprehenditur, sed etiam is, qui eo loco deprehenditur, quo furtum fit; veluti qui in domo furtum fecit, et, nondùm egressus januam, deprehensus fuerit: et qui in oliveto olivarum, aut in vineto uvarum, furtum, fecit, quamdiu in eo oliveto aut vineto deprehensus fuerit., Imò ulterius furtum manifestum est extendendum, quamdiu eam rem fur tenens visus vel deprehensus fuerit, sivè in publico, sivè in privato, vel à domino, vel ab alio, antequam eo pervenerit, quo deferre vel deponere destinasset. Sed, si pertulit, quo destinavit, tametsi deprehendatur cum re furtiva, non est manifestus fur. Nec manifestum furtum quid sit, ex iis, quæ diximus, intelligitur; nam quod manifestum

3. Of theft there are two kinds, manifest and not manifest: for the thefts, called conceptum and oblatum, rather denote the kind of action connected with theft, than the kind of theft; as will appear in the next paragraph. A manifest thief, whom the Greeks call ex' avre¶węw, is he, who is taken in the act of thieving, or in the place, where he committed it; as if a man, having committed a theft within a house, should be apprehended before he had passed the outward door: or, having stolen grapes or olives, should be taken in the vineyard or olive orchard. Manifest theft is also farther extended: for, if the thief be apprehended, while seen in possession of the thing stolen, or if he be taken in public or in private, by the owner or by a stranger, at any time before his arrival at the place, to which he proposed to carry it, he is guilty of a manifest theft. But if he actually arrive, before apprehension, at the place proposed, then, although the thing stolen be found upon him, he is not a manifest thief. By this de

est.

De furto concepto, oblato, § IV. Conceptum furtum dicitur, cum apud aliquem, testibus præsentibus, furtiva res quæsita et inventa sit: nam in eum propria actio constituta est, quamvis fur non sit; quæ appellatur concepti. Oblatum furtum dicitur, cum res furtiva ab aliquo tibi oblata sit, eaque apud te concepta sit; utique si eâ mente tibi data fuerit, ut apud te potius, quam apud eum, qui dedit, conciperetur: nam tibi, apud quem concepta sit, propria adversus eum, qui obtulit, quamvis fur non sit, constituta est actio, quæ appellatur oblati. Est etiam prohibiti furti actio, adversus eum, qui furtum quærere testibus præsentibus volentem prohibuerit. Præterea pœna constituitur edicto prætoris per actionem furti non exhibiti adversus eum, qui furtivam rem apud se quæsitam et inventam non exhibuit. Sed hæ actiones, scilicet concepti, et oblati, et furti prohibiti, nec non furti non exhibiti, in desuetudinem abierunt. Cum enim requisitio rei furtivæ hodie secundùm veterem observationem non

fiat, meritò ex consequentiâ, etiam præfatæ actiones ab usu communi recesserunt; cum manifestum sit, quod omnes, qui scientes rem furtivam susceperint, et celaverint, furti nec manifesti obnoxii sunt.

prohibito, non exhibito.

§ 4. A theft is called conceptum [i. e. found] when a thing stolen is searched for and found upon some person in the presence of witnesses; and a particular action, called actio concepti, lies against such possessor, although he did not commit the theft. A theft is called oblatum, [i. e. offered,] when a thing stolen is offered to Titius, and found upon him, it having been given to him by Seius, with intent that it might rather be found upon Titius than upon himself: and in this case a special action, called actio oblati, may be brought by Titius against Seius, although Seius was not guilty of the theft. The action, called prohibiti furti, also lies against him, who prevents another from inquiring of theft in the presence of witnesses. And further, a penalty was appointed by prætorian edict to be sued by the action furti non exhibiti against any man for not having produced things stolen, which upon search were found to have been in his possession. But these four actions are become quite obsolete; for, since a search after things stolen is not now made according to ancient formalities, these actions have in conse quence ceased to be in use; for it is a settled point, that all, who knowingly have received and concealed a thing stolen, are subject to the penalty of theft not manifest.