3

Omnium autem actionum instituendarum principium ab ca parte edicti roficiscitur, qua practor edicit de in ius vocando: utique enim in primis adversarius in ius vocandus est, id est ad eum vocandus est, qui ius dicturus sit. qua parte praetor parentibus et patronis, item liberis parentibusque patronorum et patronarum hunc praestat honorem, ut non aliter liceat liberis libertisque eos in ius vocare, quam si id ab ipso praetore postu laverint et impetraverint: et si quis aliter vocaverit, in eum poenam solidorum quinquaginta constituit.

XVII.

DE OFFICIO IUDICIS.

Superest, ut de officio iudicis dispiciamus. et quidem in primis illud observare debet iudex, ne aliter iudicet, quam 1 legibus aut constitutionibus aut moribus proditum est. Et ideo si noxali iudicio addictus est, observare debet, ut, si condemnandus videbitur dominus, ita debeat condemnare: 'Publium Maevium Lucio Titio decem aureis condemno aut 2 noxam dedere.' Et si in rem actum sit, sive contra petitorem

2, 'hoc edicto continentur etiam omnes, qui edicto praetoris ut infames notantur: qui omnes nisi pro se et certis personis ne postulent' ib. 8), and also was to a large extent incapable of being represented himself by an agent in legal process, Tit. 13. 11 and notes supr.; finally certain matrimonial disabilities were imposed on him by the lex Iulia de maritandis, Ulpian, reg. 13. I. 2. Under Justinian, however, most of these consequences were inoperative or obsolete.

For the meaning of actio directa in this connection see p. 383 supr.; for 'pacti' cf. Dig. 3. 2. 6. 3 and 4 'pactum sic accipimus, si cum pretio quantocunque pactus est,' Cod. 2. 12. 18 'verum pactos eos demum, qui ullos adversariis nummos pro mala conscientia ex transactione numerassent, in hac causa placuit intellegi.' The compounding of a delict for money is as bad as being found guilty of having committed it.

§ 3. For the form of summons under Justinian see on Tit. 6. 24 supr., and for the summons of parents and patrons without the praetor's permission cf. Gaius iv. 46.

Tit. XVII. 1. For noxal actions see Tit. 8 supr. and notes: cf. Dig. 42. 1. 6. I'decem aut noxae dedere condemnatus iudicati in decem tenetur, facultatem autem noxae dedendi ex lege accipit: at is qui stipu. latus est decem aut noxae dedere non potest decem petere.'

§ 2. A defendant would be entitled to time for a restitutio that is to say,

iudicavit, absolvere debet possessorem, sive contra possessorem, iubere eum debet, ut rem ipsam restituat cum fructibus. sed si in praesenti neget se possessor restituere posse et sine frustratione videbitur tempus restituendi causa petere, indulgendum est ei, ut tamen de litis aestimatione caveat cum fideiussore, si intra tempus quod ei datum est non restituisset. et si hereditas petita sit, eadem circa fructus interveniunt, quae diximus intervenire in singularum rerum petitione. illorum autem fructuum, quos culpa sua possessor non perceperit, in utraque actione eadem ratio paene fit, si praedo fuerit. si vero bona fide possessor fuerit, non habetur ratio consumptorum neque non perceptorum: post inchoatam autem petitionem etiam illorum ratio habetur, qui culpa possessoris percepti non sunt vel percepti consumpti sunt. Si ad exhibendum actum fuerit, non sufficit, si exhibeat rem 3 is cum quo actum est, sed opus est, ut etiam causam rei debeat exhibere, id est ut cam causam habeat actor, quam habiturus esset, si, cum primum ad exhibendum egisset, exhibita res fuisset: ideoque si inter moras usucapta sit res a possessore, nihilo minus condemnatur. praeterea fructuum medii temporis, id est eius, quod post acceptum ad exhibendum iudicium ante rem iudicatam intercessit, rationem habere debet iudex. quod si neget is, cum quo ad exhibendum actum est, in praesenti exhibere se posse et tempus exhibendi causa petat idque sine frustratione postulare videatur, dari ei debet, ut tamen caveat se restituturum: quod si neque statim iussu iudicis rem exhibeat neque postea ex

his application would not be put down to frustratio, only where the obstacle was natural, 'neque tantum in ipsius debitoris persona facultas dandi deest,' cf. Dig. 45. 1. 73. pr. 'interdum pura stipulatio ex re ipsa dilationem capit, veluti si id quod in utero sit aut fructus futuros aut domum aedificari stipulatus sit,' ib. 137. 4 'sed haec recedunt ab impedimento naturali et respiciunt ad facultatem dandi: est autem facultas personae commodum incommodumque, non rerum quae promittuntur.'

For the difference between a bona fide and a mala fide possessor (praedo) in respect of liability for fructus see on Bk. ii. 1. 35 supr. The former's mental attitude was by a fiction represented as having changed at litis contestatio: 'bonae fidei possessor postea (i. e. petita hereditate) et ipse praedo est' Dig. 5. 3. 20. I.

§ 3. For the nature of the actio ad exhibendum see on Tit. 6. 31 supr.

hibiturum se caveat, condemnandus sit in id, quod actoris 4 intererat ab initio rem exhibitam esse. Si familiae erciscundae iudicio actum sit, singulas res singulis heredibus adiudicare debet et, si in alterius persona praegravare videatur adiudicatio, debet hunc invicem coheredi certa pecunia, sicut iam dictum est, condemnare. eo quoque nomine coheredi quisque suo condemnandus est, quod solus fructus hereditarii fundi percepit aut rem hereditariam corrupit aut consumpsit. quae quidem similiter inter plures quoque quam duos coheredes 5 subsequuntur. Eadem interveniunt et si communi dividundo de pluribus rebus actum fuerit. quod si de una re, veluti de fundo, si quidem iste fundus commode regionibus divisionem recipiat, partes eius singulis adiudicare debet et, si unius pars praegravare videbitur, is invicem certa pecunia alteri condemnandus est: quod si commode dividi non possit, vel homo forte aut mulus erit de quo actum sit, uni totus adiu6 dicandus est et is alteri certa pecunia condemnandus. Si finium regundorum actum fuerit, dispicere debet iudex, an

'Causa' in this connection does not seem to include fructus, which are mentioned later in the paragraph; but, as this action as a rule only paved the way to further litigation, it rather denotes (as seems clear from the illustration in the text, ideoque si... condemnabitur') advantages of legal position: 'in eadem causa in qua fuit, cum iudicium acciperetur, ut quis copiam rei habens possit exsequi actione in nullo casu laesa' Dig. 10. 4. 9. 5. Usucapion was not properly interrupted by litis contestatio with the possessor, but, if the plaintiff proved that, at that date, he was owner, he would still be condemned, Dig. 6. 1. 18; 41. 4. 2. 21 ; 41. 5. 2.

§ 4. For the general nature of the iudicia divisoria spoken of in this and the two following paragraphs see on Tit. 6. 20 supr., and for this action in particular p. 444 supr. Debts owed by and to the hereditas were ipso iure divided among the coheredes: 'ea quae in nominibus sunt non recipiunt divisionem, cum ipso iure in portiones hereditarias ex lege duodecim tabularum divisa sunt' Cod. 3. 36. 6, though the judge might properly appoint any one of the heirs as the fit person to sue or be sued on specific claims or liabilities 'partim suo partim procuratorio nomine, quia saepe et solutio et exactio partium non minima incommoda habet' Dig. 10. 2. 3. Certain other res hereditariae were exempted from partition, either because they were in their very nature indivisible (e. g. praedial servitudes) or from their having already been specifically assigned to this or that heres by the testator, Dig. ib. 44. pr. § 5. For the actio communi dividundo cf. Bk. iii. 27. 3 supr.

§ 6. For the actio finium regundorum see on Tit. 6. 20 supr. 'Hoc

necessaria sit adiudicatio. quae sane uno casu necessaria est, si evidentioribus finibus distingui agros commodius sit, quam olim fuissent distincti: nam tunc necesse est ex alterius agro partem aliquam alterius agri domino adiudicari. quo casu conveniens est, ut is alteri certa pecunia debeat condemnari. eo quoque nomine damnandus est quisque hoc iudicio, quod forte circa fines malitiose aliquid commisit, verbi gratia quia lapides finales furatus est aut arbores finales cecidit. contumaciae quoque nomine quisque eo iudicio condemnatur, veluti si quis iubente iudice metiri agros passus non fuerit. Quod autem istis iudiciis alicui adiudicatum sit, id statim 7 eius fit cui adiudicatum est.

XVIII.

DE PUBLICIS IUDICIIS.

Publica iudicia neque per actiones ordinantur nec omnino quidquam simile habent ceteris iudiciis, de quibus iocuti sumus, magnaque diversitas est eorum et in instituendis et in exercendis. Publica autem dicta sunt, quod cuivis ex 1

IO.

iudicium locum habet in confinio praediorum rusticorum' Dig. 10. 1. 4. The wilful removal of boundaries was punished extra ordinem, Paul. sent. rec. I. 16; 'quod si per ignorantiam aut fortuito lapides furati sunt, sufficit eos (servos) verberibus decidere' (Hadriani rescriptum in Dig. 47. 21. 2).

§ 7. Hence adiudicatio is a civil mode of acquisition, p. 215 supr. ' adiudicatione dominium nanciscimur per formulam familiae erciscundae, communi dividundo, finium regundorum' Ulpian, reg. 19. 16.

Tit. XVIII. For the general history of Roman criminal law see Maine's Ancient Law, chap. x. Iudicia publica in the later period were commenced by an indictment or information ('causa criminis ordinata, id est, inscriptionibus depositis' Cod. 9. 45. 1), the form of which is preserved in Dig. 48. 2. 3. pr. ‘apud illum praetorem vel proconsulem L. Titius professus est se Maeviam lege Iulia de adulteriis ream deferre, quod dicat eam cum Gaio Seio in civitate illa, domo illius, mense illo, consulibus illis adulterium commisisse.' But the procedure in Justinian's time being altogether extra ordinem, i. e. that prescribed for the several iudicia publica by statute having fallen into disuse, the differences between actions and prosecutions were not so marked as might be inferred from the text above.

§ 1. Plerumque belongs to 'cuivis ex populo.' Impuberes, infames, and the very poor were as a rule disabled from prosecuting, Dig. 48. 2.

2 populo exsecutio eorum plerumque datur. Publicorum iudiciorum quaedam capitalia sunt, quaedam non capitalia. capitalia dicimus, quae ultimo supplicio adficiunt vel aquae et ignis interdictione vel deportatione vel metallo: cetera si qua infamiam irrogant cum damno pecuniario, haec publica 3 quidem sunt, non tamen capitalia. Publica autem iudicia sunt haec. lex Iulia maiestatis, quae in eos, qui contra imperatorem vel rem publicam aliquid moliti sunt, suum vigorem extendit. cuius poena animae amissionem sustinet et memoria rei et post mortem damnatur. Item lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis, quae non solum temeratores alienarum nuptiarum gladio punit, sed etiam eos, qui cum masculis

8 sq., as also were women and soldiers unless the crime was committed against either themselves or some near relation, Cod. 9. 1. 4 and 8.

§ 2. 'Licet "capitalis " Latine loquentibus omnis causa existimationis videatur, tamen appellatio capitalis mortis vel amissionis civitatis intellegenda est' Dig. 50. 16. 103. The looser use of the term is not uncommon in Cicero, e. g. pro Quinctio 4. 7. 8. 9. 19, etc. For the relative severity of these punishments cf. Dig. 48. 19. 28. pr. 'proxima morti poena, metalli coercitio: post deinde in insulam deportatio;' for the latter cf. Bk. i. 16. 2 supr. For the iudicia publica which were not capitalia cf. Dig. 1. c. 2 'ceterae poenae ad existimationem, non ad capitis periculum pertinent.' 'Damno pecuniario' may be supplemented from Dig. ib. 2 'pecuniaria aut in corpus aliqua coercitio.'

§ 3. The lex Iulia maiestatis was passed by Julius Caesar, Cic. Philipp. 1. 9. Previously the law of treason had rested partly on usage (Livy 1. 26), partly on the Twelve Tables (Dig. 48. 4. 3. pr.), and a lex Cornelia (Cic. in Pis. 21, pro Cluent. 35). The intention to commit the offence was punished no less than its execution (moliti sunt): 'qui cogitaverit .... eadem enim severitate voluntatem sceleris, qua effectum, puniri iura voluerunt' Cod. 9. 8. 5. Perhaps the same rule was observed in all crimes, 'in maleficiis voluntas spectatur, non exitus' Dig. ad leg. Corn. de sicariis 48. 8. 14. The lex Iulia had substituted a perpetual aquae et ignis interdictio for the older punishment of death, Paul. sent. rec. 5. 29. I; but the latter was re-established as early as Tiberius, Tac. Ann. 6. 18, Suetonius, Tiberius 58 sq.

Memoriae damnatio (for which cf. Bk. iii. 1. 5 supr.) was an exception from the general rule 'extinguitur crimen mortalitate' Dig. 48. 4. 11; its effect was bonorum publicatio or confiscation, involving rescission of the criminal's will and donationes inter virum et uxorem. A constitution of M. Aurelius (Cod. 9. 8. 8) introduced the practice of finding persons guilty of treason after their decease, which was unknown in the age of Tiberius, Tac. Ann. 6. 29.

§ 4. The lex Iulia de adulteriis was passed by Augustus Caesar, Dig.